INTRODUCTION TO CROP PRODUCTION

2012
CROP PRODUCTION IN INDONESIA DIAN DWI KARTIKASARI

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

BAB I 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.4 1.4.1 1.5 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5 BAB II 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.4 2.4.1 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5

CEREAL CROP : MAIZE (Zea mays) USES OF MAIZE PRODUCTION MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT SEEDLING MAIZE MORPHOLOGY GROWTH STAGE OF MAIZE DEVELOPMENT ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE, WATER, SOIL REQUIREMENTS CROP PRODUCTION SOWING FERTILIZER WEEDING PESTS MANAGEMENT HARVESTING SUGAR CROP : SUGAR BEET (Beta vulgaris) USE S OF SUGAR BEET PRODUCTION MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT MORPHOLOGY GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE, WATER, SOIL REQUIREMENTS CROP PRODUCTION SOWING FERTILIZER WEEDING PESTS MANAGEMENT HARVESTING

4 4 5 8 8 9 12 14 14 14 16 16 16 17 18 19 21 21 22 23 23 24 26 26 26 26 27 28 29 29 30 30 31 32 32 34 37 37

BAB III GRAIN LEGUMES : SOYBEAN (Glycine max) 3.1 USE S OF SOYBEAN 3.2 PRODUCTION 3.3 MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 3.3.1 MORPHOLOGY 3.3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 3.4 ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL 3.4.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE, WATER, SOIL REQUIREMENTS

3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5

CROP PRODUCTION SOWING FERTILIZER WEEDING PESTS MANAGEMENT HARVESTING

38 38 38 39 39 40 41 41 41 43 44 44 46 46 47 47 47 47 47 48 49 49 50 51 51 52 53 53 53 53 53 54 54 54

BAB IV OIL CROP : PEANUT (Arachis hypogaea) 4.1 USE S OF PEANUT 4.2 PRODUCTION 4.3 MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 4.3.1 MORPHOLOGY 4.3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 4.4 ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL 4.4.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE, WATER, SOIL REQUIREMENTS 4.5 CROP PRODUCTION 4.5.1 SOWING 4.5.2 FERTILIZER 4.5.3 WEEDING 4.5.4 PESTS MANAGEMENT 4.5.5 HARVESTING BAB V FIBER CROP : COTTON (Gossypium hirsutum) 4.1 USE S OF COTTON 4.2 PRODUCTION 4.3 MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 4.3.1 MORPHOLOGY 4.3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 4.4 ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL 4.4.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE, WATER, SOIL REQUIREMENTS 4.5 CROP PRODUCTION 4.5.1 SOWING 4.5.2 FERTILIZER 4.5.3 WEEDING 4.5.4 PESTS MANAGEMENT 4.5.5 HARVESTING

REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

This report provides information about uses; production, morphology, growth, and development; Adaptation and production potential include climatic requirements,

temperature, water, soil requirements; Crop production include sowing, fertilizer, weed and pest management and harvesting of the crops in Indonesia such as maize, soybean, cotton, peanut and sugar beat. Indonesia extends from latitudes 6" N to 1 1 " S and from longitudes 95" W to

141" E. The greatest distance from west to east is 5 110 km, and the greatest distance north to south is 1888 km. The Indonesian archipelago consists of 17 435 islands the five largest being Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya (Figure. 1). Agriculture is a key sector of the Indonesian economy. About 45% of Indonesian workers are engaged in agriculture, which accounts for 17% of GDP in 2001. Some 31 million ha (76.6 million acres) are under cultivation, with 35% to 40% of the cultivated land devoted to the production of export crops. Some 60% of the country's cultivated land is in Java. Agricultural development in Indonesia has followed closely the growth of population and its geographical distribution. Out of 215 million inhabitants, about 58.6 percent (124.2 million) reside in the inner islands of Java, Madura, Bali and Lombok, which together compose only about 8 percent of Indonesias land area. The remaining 87.8 million people occupy the outer islands, of which the larger are Sumatera, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Papua.

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Figure 1 : Map of Indonesia

1. Daerah lstimewa Aceh 2. Sumatra Utara 3. Sumatra Barat 4. Riau 13. Java Timur 5. Jambi 14. Bali 6. Sumatra Selatan 7. Bengkulu 8. Lampung 17. Timor-Timur 9. DKI. Jakarta 10. Java Barat 11. Java Tengah 12. Daerah lstimewa Yogyakarta 15. Nusa Tenggara Barat

16. Nusa Tenggara Timur 18. Kalimantan Barat Fig. 1. Map of Indonesia 19. Kalimantan Tengah 20. Kalimantan Selatan 21. Kalimantan Timur 22. Sulawesi Utara 23. Sulawesi Tengah 24. Sulawesi Selatan 25. Sulawesi Tenggara 26. Maluku 27. lrian Jaya

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The major crops grown in Indonesia are rice, maize, soybean, peanut, cassava, and chili. The area under vegetable cultivation during 1993, excluding potato and sweet potato but including onion, garlic and chili, was 775,000 ha, or about 3.7% of the total cropped area. This produced 4.3 million t of vegetables, worth more than US$1 billion. Average yields of vegetables were in the neighborhood of 5.6 t/ha. This translated into per capita availability of vegetables (excluding potato, sweet potato, and export of vegetables) of about 22 kg per annum, or 60 g per day, which is only 30% of the recommended vegetable consumption of 200 g per day. The main vegetables grown in the country are chili, yard long bean, shallot, cabbage, kidney bean, cucumber, Chinese cabbage, green mustard, 140 Dynamics of Vegetables leek, spinach, French bean, eggplant, garlic, and carrot. Vegetable cultivation is concentrated on Java. In 1993-94, average per capita food consumption was about 712 g per day, of which cereals and tubers made up 41.6%, oils and fats 38.3%, vegetables 5.3%, fruits 3.3%, livestock products 3.6%, legumes 2.6%, and miscellaneous other foods the remaining 5.3%. (CBS, 1993).

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BAB I : CEREAL CROP MAIZE (Zea mays)

The term "maize" derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Tano word for the plant, maiz. It is known by other names around the world. In scientific and formal usage, "maize" is normally used in a global context. Equally, in bulk-trading contexts, "corn" is used most frequently.

In Indonesia, maize is the second most important cereal crop after rice, in terms of the percentage area planted to maize relative to the total area for all food crops. Kasryno (2002) reported that during 1970-2000, the area planted to maize was about 19% of the total area planted to food crops. Rice occupied about 61% of the total area planted to food crops over the same time period. Another 20% was planted to other food crop (palawija) such as soybeans, mungbeans, peanuts, cassava, and sweet potato.

1.1

Uses of Maize In Indonesia maize is mainly used for animal feed although there are some alternative

uses in the biochemical industry. The share of maize used for human consumption is approximately 10%. a. Human Food and Animal Feed

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Maize is an all-important crop which provides an avenue for making various types of foods for human food and animal feed. In addition to the maize that is fed to animals in the form of grain, a significant portion of the crop is fed to animals as forage. Forage uses of maize include fodder (leaves and stalks, tassels, husks), stover (dried stalks minus the ears), and silage (entire plant chopped and fermented). It also has some medicinal values and serves as raw-materials for many industries. b. Medicinal A crop which is highly edible and nutritious as maize, also has some medicinal uses among the local people. It is used to cure many diseases, which it had over the years proved to be very effective. These include: Water filtered through charcoal obtained from maize stalk can be used as a treatment to cure gonorrhea (AbdulRahaman, 1997). An infusion obtained from stigma of maize inflorescence can be used for treatment of diseases of the urinary tract or passage (AbdulRahaman, 1997). Water obtained during the preparation of pap is used to soak bark or root of some. This is used to treat fever and malaria. c. Chemicals Starch from maize can also be made into plastics, fabrics, adhesives, and many other chemical products. The corn steep liquor, a plentiful watery byproduct of maize wet milling process, is widely used in the biochemical industry and research as a culture medium to grow many kinds of microorganisms d. Ornamental and other uses Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used. Size-superlative types, reaching 40 ft (12 m) tall, cobs 2 ft (61 cm) long, or 1 in (2.5 cm) kernels, have been popular for at least a century. Maize kernels can be used in place of sand in a sandboxlike enclosure for children's play. Additionally, feed corn is sometimes used by hunters to bait animals such as deer or wild hogs.

1.2

Production Among palawija crops, maize is an important source of calories for many

Indonesians. In 2008 the agricultural sector has contributed IDR 713,291 billion to the

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Indonesian economy (Table 1). Nearly half of this production value comes from food crops (Figure. 2) of which maize accounts for 12% with IDR 40,608 billions. Maize production in Indonesia is progressively growing, increasing 25% in terms of area planted and 56% in aggregate production between 2003 and 2009, implying a growth in average productivity of 25% between these years (Table 2). Indonesia is a net importer of maize with minimal exports flows (Figure. 3). Maize imports fluctuate according to the needs of the internal market and in 2006 reached a level of 16% of domestic production. Given the importance of maize in the rural economy, the crop is grown across the whole country. Java provinces account for over 50% of national maize production with Lampung, South Sulawesi, North Sumatra, East Nusa Tenggara, Gorontalo being other important production areas (Table 3). During the last decade, most maize (57%) was grown in Java and contributed about 61% to national maize production. In contrast, about 43% of maize was grownoutside Java and contributed about 39% to national production (CBS 1971-2001). Although maize continues to be most widely grown in Java, maize area has tended to decline slightly over time. In Lampung, maize is mainly planted on dryland (tegalan) and rainfed lowlands. A small portion is planted on irrigated lowlands. In 2000, the area planted to maize was about 32.4% of the total area planted to food crops, while rice occupied about 42% (Kasryno 2002). In East Java, maize is mainly cultivated on dryland and rainfed areas, and some on irrigated lowlands. In 2000, the area planted to maize in East Java was about 31% of the total area planted to food crops, while the area planted to rice was about 47%. Again, in this area, maize is the second most important food crop after rice.

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Table 1. Value of production of the agricultural sector 2003 2008 (Current IDR Billions)

Source: Indonesia Statistics & Information 2003-2008 - BPS 2009 Note: Food crops include rice, corn, soybean, ground nuts, mung bean, cassava, potatoes, etc. Estate crops include cocoa, palm oil, coffee, sugar cane, etc. Figure 2. Breakdown of value of production of the agricultural sector for 2008

Source: Indonesia Statistics & Information 2003-2008 - BPS 2009 Table 2. Maize Production in Indonesia

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Food Crops Directorate General

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Table 3. Share of National production in main production provinces

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Food Crops Directorate Generals

Figure 3. Import and Export of Maize in Indonesia

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Trade, and BPS 2009

1.3 1.3.1

Morphology, growth and development Seedling The seed of a maize plant is called the kernel and consists of three major parts: the

fruit wall, endosperm and embryo. Once the seed absorbs water, germination commences. The seedling uses seed starch reserves in the endosperm to germinate and a root, called the radicle, sprouts from the kernel, which is illustrated in Figure 4. Soon after emergence of the radicle, three to four lateral roots sprouting from the seed also emerge. At the same time or soon after, a shoot emerges at the other end of the kernel (Figure 4) and pushes through the

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soil surface. This breaking through the soil surface is called emergence. When the tip of the shoot breaks through the soil surface, elongation of the middle section of the shocalled the mesocotyl, ceases, and the first leaf, which is termed the plumule, emerges (Figure 5). The primary roots develop at the depth at which the seed is sown. The growth of these roots slows down after the shoot emerges above the soil surface and virtually stops at about the three-leaf stage. The first adventitious roots (roots other than those growing from the radicle) start developing from the first node at the mesocotyl, which occurs just below the soil surface. These adventitious roots continue to develop into a thick web of fibrous roots and are the main anchorage for the maize plant; they also facilitate water and nutrien uptake.

Figure 4. A germinating maize seed illustrating growth of the plumule and radicle

Figure 5. First true leaf expansion and emergence of the second leaf

1.3.2 Maize Morphology In the early growth stages, the leaves and stem are not readily distinguishable. That is because the growing point (whorl) remains underground until the first five leaves have emerged. Examination of a 1-metre-tall maize plant reveals a series of enlargements that encircle the stem. These are called nodes. The space between two nodes is called an internode. The earliest internodes elongate only slightly, so that the space between internodes is only small. However, internodes of older plants elongate much more and account for height in maize. Leaves are made up of a blade and sheath. The blade extends from the stem at a node. Below this node the leaf runs parallel to the stem and is called the leaf sheath. The sheath

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encircles the node, forming a pale collar. Between the stem and the leaf sheath is a prominent ligule, a small, fine, hairy membrane surrounding the stem (Figure 6). The stem (Figure 6) has two functions: to support the leaves and flowers and to transport water and nutrients. Nutrients are carried in vessels, called xylem and phloem, which are connected to the roots. The xylem transports water and mineral nutrients from the roots up into the plant and can only flow one way. The phloem flows in both directions and transports organic nutrients, especially sucrose, in a water based solution. The major

function of the leaves is to carry out photosynthesis for grain production. New leaves arise from the growing point. Depending upon the variety, 16 to 23 foliage leaves will be produced. The diameter of the stem eventually becomes very large at the base, which usually causes the lower 5 to 7 leaves to break loose and wither. Problems such as nutrient imbalances, herbicide damage and disease symptoms usually become evident through the leaves. Maize farmers should check the crop for symptoms of these problems by observing the colour, growth, and development of the leaves.
Figure 6. Maize stem and leaf Structures

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1.3.3 Growth Stage of Maize Figure 7 illustrates the complete life cycle of maize from germination through to maturity and harvest.
Figure 7. The growth stages of maize

Source. NSW Department of Primary Industries

Germination and emergence (stages ve to v2 in figure 7) When maize seed is sown in soil with a temperature above 21C and adequate moisture, it rapidly absorbs water and emerges within 2 or 3 days. If the soil temperature is low (less than 18C), germination slows and radicle emergence may take as long as six to eight days. In addition, radicle emergence is slow if the depth of sowing is deeper than 8 cm. On the other hand, under rainfed conditions when the seed is sown in dry soil awaiting rain, high soil temperature and inadequate moisture can cause the seed to die. Nutrient reserves in the seed feed the emerging seedling for the first week until the primary roots develop and begin to supply the plant with water and nutrients from the soil. The stems first internode grows rapidly until eventually the seedling emerges, usually 4 or 5 days after sowing, provided there is enough moisture in the soil and temperature is optimal. Early vegetative development (stages v3 to v10 in figure 7) The adventitious root system develops from the first stem node below the soil surface and takes over the main root function approximately 10 days after emergence (stages V3 to V4 in Figure 7).

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All the leaves the plant will ever produce are formed by a single growing point below the ground during the first 2 to 3 weeks. As the growing point is below the ground, young maize plants are susceptible to damage from waterlogging, especially when combined with high temperatures. However, if later conditions are favourable, the plant can recover well from damage during this stage. Three weeks after emergence the growing point is at the soil surface and, having formed all the leaves, develops an embryonic tassel (stage V5). At this stage, leaf formation is at its fastest stage of production and at 4 weeks eight leaves are fully emerged (stage V8). Late vegetative development (stages v11 to v16 in figure 7) This is one of the most critical stages in the development of the maize plant. The plant grows and the stem elongates rapidly, with a high demand for water and nutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Leaf enlargement is complete by 5 weeks (V12) and the roots quickly fill most of the root zone. Ears begin to form within the plant soon after tassel initiation (V5); however, over a 2-week period in weeks 5 to 7 (V11 to V16), the highest one or two ears start rapidly developing and ear size is determined. The number of rows per ear is determined first, then kernels per row. At about 7 weeks the tassel reaches full size (V16). Any adverse effect suffered at this stage, such as nutrient or water shortage, insect damage, or too high a plant population, will significantly affect yield. Furthermore, damage to pollen or ear structures in this period will be permanent, with little chance of compensation later. Flowering (stage r1 in figure 7) At this stage plants will have finished producing all 20 leaves. Tassels fully emerge (R1) and pollen sheds 40 to 50 days after emergence, with the length of time depending on variety and environmental conditions. Silks emerge from the uppermost ear and sometimes from the second ear. Pollination and fertilisation of the ears occurs. During this period there is a high demand for water, and the uptake of N and P is rapid, although K uptake is almost complete. As pollen supply is abundant, poor seed set is usually due to nutrient or water deficits that either delay silking or result in kernel abortion after pollination. If maize is flowering during hot, dry weather this places extra stress on the plants resources and the silks may wither and burn off before the pollen reaches the ear. Hence fertilisation does not occur for all kernels and seed set is greatly reduced. This is commonly referred to as pollen blasting.

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1.3.4

Development Cobs, husks and shanks are fully developed by day 7 after silking. The plant is now

using significant energy and nutrients to produce kernels on an ear. Initially the kernels are like small blisters containing a clear fluid; this is referred to as the kernel blister stage. As the kernels continue to fill, the fluid becomes thicker and whiter in colour. This is called the milk stage. Next is the kernel dough stage, at which point the fluid within the kernels becomes thicker as starch accumulates. During these kernel filling stages N and P uptake continues at a rapid rate. As the number of ears and kernels has already been determined, it is the kernel size that is affected by conditions during this stage. A low kernel weight will reduce yield. Denting of the grain occurs around 20 days after silking; this is an indicator that the embryos are fully developed. Initially at denting a line can be seen which slowly moves to the tip of the kernel through until physiological maturity. This line is called the milk line and marks the boundary between the liquid (milky) and solid (starchy) areas of the maturing kernels (Figure 8). Maturity Approximately 30 days after silking the plant has reached the maximum dry weight, a stage called physiological maturity. This is where a black layer is noticeable at the tip of each kernel, where cells die and block further starch accumulation into the kernel. At this stage the milk line has completely disappeared. Kernel moisture at physiological maturity is around 30%. The grain and husks begin losing moisture while healthy stalks remain green. Eventually the leaves will dry off. Harvesting can commence when grain moisture is below 20%. The grain is dried down to 14% for delivery to storage or market.
Figure 8. Maize cob cross section showing milk line

1.4

Adaptation and Production Potential

1.4.1 Climatic Requirements: Temperature, Water, Soil Requirements. In general, maize can grow optimally in areas with this characteristic :

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Soil pH : 5.8-7.8 Mean temperature : between 18C and 32C Annual precipitation : between 500 and 5,000 mm. Optimal annual rainfall : 1,000- 1,500 mm, 500-1,200 mm. Maize can grow on many types of soils. Well drained, well aerated, deep loam, and silt loam soils with adequate organic matter are most suited for maize cropping. On soils with a low moisture retention capacity, or in areas of low rainfall, a low plant density should be used. Maize yield increases with planting density on irrigated plot, but the reverse may occur on rainfed plots. Soil fertility characteristics which are suitable for maize, have apparent cation exchange capacity (CEC) > 16 cmol (+) kg -1 clay, base saturation > 20%, sum of basic cations > 2 cmol(+) kg -1 soil, and organic carbon >0.5% (Sys et al. 1993; Djaenudin et al. 2003). In the rainy season soil preparation is commonly done two or three times for both rained sawah and uplands (Table 4). First preparations are made before the rain, and the second and third after the first rain. Sometimes manure is spread and mixed with the soil during the last preparation. From the first soil preparation until wet season planting takes between 17 and 35 days. In the dry season, most farmers practice only minimal soil preparation o_ even none at all because of the tight planting schedule and consequent possible labour shortages. Without soil preparation, maize seed is usually planted seven to 10 days before the previous crop is harvested, after which intensive weeding follows. Since less than 15 days are needed to prepare the soil in the dry season, only 25% of the farmers repeat the work in the upland, and no one did so three times. It appears that differing soil preparations are not related to maize variety and whether it intercropped.
Table 4 The relationship of soil preparation frequency to maize cropping.

Source: 141 cases of sample farms, Central and East Java, 1985.

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1.5

Crop Production

1.5.1 Sowing. The first step in the seed production process is to select a suitable growing area. This area should provide a favorable growing environment, so it is necessary to pay attention to such agroclimatic factors as temperature, rainfall, day length, and soil nutrient status. The levels of these factors, as well as their incidence during the production cycle, are important, because seed yields may be sensitive to unfavorable conditions during particular periods. Perhaps as important as the selection of the growing area is the selection of contract growers. Because maize seed multiplication is very labor-intensive and requires a high level of supervision, seed production organizations (both private companies and public agencies) generally do not attempt to carry out large-scale seed multiplication operations using their own land and labor. Most commercial maize seed is produced by private farmers under contract. Planting starts with seed selection and preparation. Parent seed should be high in genetic purity, germination, and vigor; if seed is to be planted mechanically, kernels should be uniform in size. Most commercial seed farms use plant densities ranging from 45,000 to 65,000 plants per ha (20,000 to 26,000 plants per acre). To ensure maximum germination, seed should be sown at a depth of 3-5 centimeters (cm). Depending on expected rainfall, topography, and other factors, seed may be planted atop ridges, in furrows, or on flat beds (with or without subsequent "earthing up"). Maize is not as drought tolerant as some of the other upland crops such as mungbeans and sesame, so good soil moisture at sowing time is required before the crop is planted. It is recommended that there be at least 30 cm of wet soil throughout the soil profile before sowing. Aim to plant maize on deeper alluvial soils where possible.

1.5.2

Fertilizer. Fertility management practices will vary depending on the natural fertility of the soil.

Considering the high value of the crop, fertilization of seed plots tends to be profitable, and growers commonly apply nutrients to supplement natural soil fertility levels. Where available, farmyard manure or compost is often applied and incorporated into the soil. In addition, nitrogen (N), phosphorus, and potassium are applied as needed, as are micronutrients such as zinc (Zn), boron (B), or sulfur (S) if needed. Fertilizer applications are generally split into one basal application, a first topdressing (often applied 30-35 days after

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planting at the knee-high stage) and a second topdressing (often applied at the tasseling stage).

1.5.3 Weeding From the time of planting until about a third of its life, maize is very susceptible to weed competition. Failure to weed during this critical period may reduce the yield by 20% (Bangun 1985). The recommended practice is to weed twice or more depending on the extent of weed infestation. Practices that can be used in an integrated weed management program include: a. Feeding to livestock. Weeds, especially annual grasses, can be grazed or hand harvested to feed livestock. However, it is important that the weeds are prevented from producing seeds. It should be noted that there may be a trade-off to consider between the amount of soil water used by the weeds and the soil water required by the crop. b. Good agronomic practice. Good agronomic practice includes making sure the crop seed used for sowing is clean and free of weed seeds and has a high germination percentage. Good seedling vigour is important because fast growing, vigorous seedlings are more competitive with weeds. The sowing rate of maize is important as it is vital to establish a uniform plant population that is optimal for the conditions. c. Timely weed control. Traditionally, cultivation has served the dual purpose of killing weeds and preparing a seedbed. However, cultivation can also reduce the amount of soil water available to the crop. Some upland soil types such as Labansiek and Kompong Siem are friable and self-mulching and may require little or no cultivation to prepare a seed bed. In this case, a pre-sowing cultivation can be replaced by an application of herbicide such as glyphosate, which controls the weeds without loss of soil moisture. Cultivation is also less effective in controlling weeds when the soil is wet, as many weeds transplant and continue to live and set seed. Herbicides can be used as an alternative under these conditions. Farmers must follow label directions when using herbicides. d. Grazing or burning. Heavy grazing or burning is often used to control weeds and to make conditions easier for cultivation. These practices have the disadvantage of reducing ground 17 | P a g e

cover, increasing soil surface temperature, reducing soil moisture and causing soil degradation. Burning also reduces soil organic matter content. Preserving soil residues and even adding mulch such as rice straw can reduce the emergence of weeds; it will also conserve soil moisture, reduce the soil temperature and increase soil organic matter. Weed species differ in their response to management practices because they have different life cycles, nutrient requirements and modes of reproduction. They also vary in their response to cultivation and their susceptibility to herbicides. It is therefore important for the adviser and farmer to be able to recognise different weed species and understand their weaknesses.

1.5.4 Pest Management Maize production can be significantly reduced in the absence of effective management of diseases, insects and weeds. There are a number of tools and strategies that farmers can use for managing pests. These include: a. b. Ensuring the maize crop is as healthy as possible to compete with the pest. Planting early in the sowing window to avoid the high insect populations that are experienced with late sowings. c. Monitoring pest levels to determine whether they are causing economic damage or are below critical thresholds. d. Monitoring and preserving beneficial organisms that provide biological control and should be utilised as the first line of defence in PM. e. Using pesticides strategically if required and rotating chemical groups to minimise the risk of organisms developing resistance to specific chemical groups. f. Controlling host plants such as volunteer maize and grass weeds to reduce the habitat available for pests to survive and multiply. Alternative crops that host the same pests should be avoided in the crop rotation program. g. Planting a trap crop (a crop that the pest prefers) to concentrate the pest population away from the maize crop, thus reducing the area requiring insecticide control h. communicating with neighbours and other farmers in the area to incorporate area-wide management of pests where possible i. Selecting varieties that display good pest resistance.

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Area-wide management is the development of a pest management strategy to control pests to below economic threshold levels across a whole area (commune) in the most environmentally and economically sustainable manner possible. This strategy is employed by farmers working together using the same techniques at a similar time to control the pest on a broader scale than the individual farm basis. In order for this strategy to function successfully, excellent cooperation, co-ordination and communication are required. Pest Management (PM) involves using all of these tools and strategies in managing pest populations to minimise reliance on insecticides in an economical way. It is important to be able to identify various insects, diseases and weeds in order to determine an effective PM strategy. The following is an example of the major maize insect pests and a brief description of the damage they cause. Insect description : Three separate genera of termites have currently been identified as a problem maize crops, including Microtermes sp., Hypotermes sp.,
Figure 9. (top) Termite-damaged maize roots (bottom) Root termites.

Globitermes sp. and Macrotermes gilvus. Hypotermes sp. and Globitermes sp. build short, broad based, dome shaped mounds in the field whilst the other two species build their nests entirely below ground. Damage : Traditionally termites are fungus producers and they harvest plant material to feed the fungus which they then feed on themselves.

1.5.5

Harvesting The maize seed crop is harvested when the developing kernels approach physiological

maturity, the stage at which they attain their maximum dry-matter accumulation. The moisture level at which this oc- curs varies with genotype and environment. Seed companies typically plan their harvesting schedules around the physiological maturity of the crop, which is determined by closely monitoring kernel moisture percentage and heat unit accumulation. Visual indicators may also be taken into account in determining physiological maturity, such

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as the formation of the "black layer" and progression of the "milk line" (Afuakwa and Crookston 1984). Harvesting schedules may also be influenced by practical considerations such as the availability of labor, plant capacity, and cost of artificial dry- ing. In most industrialized countries, harvesting is initiated when kernel moisture content falls within the range of 30 to 35%. A timely harvest is important, because it reduces exposing the crop to biotic and abiotic stresses that can result in physical losses and quality reductions. Depending on agroclimatic and other factors, maize left standing in the field may be subject to insect and pest attacks, as well as ear molds, stalk rots, and other diseases. Theft may also be a problem. In East Java, farmers harvested maize 120130 days after planting, depending on the variety, and harvesting was done manually. Some farmers sold maize directly in the field soon after harvesting, and some carried their maize (particularly local maize) to the house, where it was sun-dried for several days. After drying and shelling, the moisture content of the grain was 17-20%. The local (white) maize was usually stored for home consumption and sold gradually in small quantities. Farmers stored yellow maize (the hybrid or its corresponding recycled hybrid) for a limited period (1-4 weeks), until they could get a better price. Seeds for the next planting were mostly selected from the last harvest and stored above the cooking place (stove) to prevent infestation by storage pests, particularly weevils. Only a few farmers in the dryland and rainfed lowlands bought new seeds after the original purchase of a new variety. Only farmers in irrigated areas bought new pure hybrids. About 80% of farmers in dryland and 90% in irrigated areas used green leaves for livestock fodder. About 50% of farmers in the drylands and 25% in irrigated areas used dry stems, dry cobs, and husks for fuel, and about 10% of farmers in both areas did not use crop residues for any purpose.

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BAB II : SUGAR CROP SUGAR BEET (Beta vulgaris)

English name: sugar beet Other names: Tropische suikerbiet (Nl.), Zuckerrbe (Ge), Latin name: Beta vulgaris L. Plant Family: Chenopodiaceae Sugar beet is the largest sugar crop in the world after sugar cane. It is mostly grown in temperate and drier areas of the world. Sugar beet requires a soil that is not too stony or clayey. It has a relatively high tolerance of saline and alkaline soils and has a relatively low water use. Sugar beet is grown as an annual crop and multiplied by seed. It has a thickened taproot that accumulates sugar. Under tropical conditions, the

Consequently, sugar beet can be grown in the same land only once in 3 years to prevent pests and diseases. This results in longer transport distances to the processing plant since continuous monoculture

cultivation close to the factory (such as possible with sugar cane) is not possible.

growth cycle is about 6 months. This makes it possible to grow 2 crops per year. Keep in mind that sugar beet requires crop rotation of not less than 1 to 3.

2.1

Uses of Sugar Beet Sugarbeets are used primarily for production of sucrose, a high energy pure food. Man's demand for sweet foods is universal. Honey was the main sweetener for primitive man. Trade in sugar from sugarcane can be traced to primitive times too. The sugarbeet was recognized as a plant with valuable sweetening properties in the early 1700s. a. Human Food Sucrose from sugarbeets is the principal use for sugarbeets. Sugarbeets contain from

13 to 22% sucrose. Sucrose is used widely as a pure high energy food or food additive. High fiber dietary food additives are manufactured from sugarbeet pulp and major food processors

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in Indonesia have used these dietary supplements in recently introduced new products including breakfast cereals. b. Livestock Feed Sugarbeet pulp and molasses are processing by-products widely used as feed supplements for livestock. These products provide required fiber in rations and increase the palatability of feeds. Sugarbeet tops also can be used for livestock feed. Sheep and cattle ranchers allow grazing of beet fields in the fall to utilize tops. Cattle and sheep also will eat small beets left in the field after harvest but producers grazing livestock in harvested fields should be aware of the risk of livestock choking on small beets. Beet tops (leaves and petioles) also can be used as silage. Sugarbeets that produce 20 tons/acre of roots also produce a total of about 5 tons/acre of TDN per acre in the tops. Tops are an excellent source of protein, vitamin A, and carbohydrates but are slightly inferior to alfalfa haylage or corn silage for beef cattle. Tops are equal to alfalfa haylage or corn silage for sheep. Beet top silage is best fed in combination with other feeds. Tops should be windrowed in the field and allowed to wilt to 60-65% moisture before ensiling. See Morrisons Feeds and Feeding Handbook for a detailed description of the nutrient content of sugarbeet tops and roots. c. Industrial Uses Molasses by-products from sugarbeet processing are used widely in the alcohol, pharmaceuticals, and bakers yeast industries. Waste lime from the processing of sugarbeets is an excellent soil amendment to increase soil pH levels. Waste lime is a good source of P & K plant nutrients. Treated processing waste water also may be used for irrigation.

2.2

Production The world harvested 227.7 million metric tonnes of sugar beet in 2010. Despite being

the worlds second largest sugar producer and exporter in the 1930s, Indonesias sugar industry has been in a state of decline. Production output decreased by 30% over the course of 1995-2000 due to the closing of several out of date mills on advice from the IMF. Production figures have improved again since 2004 to over 2 million MET and reaching 2.39 MET in 2010. Indonesia is South East Asias largest consumer of sugar and the worlds third largest importer, mainly for raw sugar. Total demand stood at 5.01 million MET for 2010 with imports making up the remainder mainly from Australia, Thailand and the Philippines. Production levels have failed to keep pace with the

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increased demand in domestic consumption and industrial use which is estimated to reach 5.7 million MET by 2014.
Figure 10. Indonesia Sugar Production

Source: Statistics Indonesia (BPS)

2.3

Morphology, Growth and Development.

2.3.1 Morphology The varieties of sugar beets grown here and abroad present a diversity of forms from the standpoint of leaf and root development, and internal structure. The types identifiable by general appearance and internal morphology may be alike or different. The inner structure of the sugar beet root is well known; it has been described and illustrated by many investigators. Suffice it to say that the root is composed of concentric rings of vascular tissue alternating with bands of parenchyma (Figure 1A) . The inner rings are mature at harvest time, more or less equidistant and relatively broad; those near the periphery are narrow and close together. In fact, in a typical mature beet root, the ratio of total radius of mature to immature rings is 10:1. The center of the beet root is occupied by a solid star-shaped body referred to as the cen- tral core. It measures only a few millimeters across but occasionally it is much thicker. Although it is quite uniform throughout its entire length, it may taper abruptly from the neck region downward. This is frequently seen in beets whose central core in the neck region is abnormally large. To distinguish the tapering core from the uniformly thick one it is necessary to check the core diameter at different root levels. The vascular rings are composed of collateral bundles in which xylem and phloem are equally broad or in which the phloem or the xylem is the more massive. The interzonal parenchyma is narrow, broad or varying in width. In the latter case the parenchyma bands between the innermost rings are usually widest.

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Figure 10. Root of Sugar Beet

Figure 11. Morphology of Sugar Beet

2.3.2 Growth and Development Sugarbeets emerge from the soil with a pair of cotyledon leaves. These leaves will normally yellow and drop from the plant, usually by the fifth or sixth leaf stage. The next leaves to emerge from the crown are the first true leaves. Although these leaves appear simultaneously and seem to be oppositely arranged, they are alternate with one of the leaves developmentally behind the other. Stage separation between the first and second true leaves is not possible. All subsequent leaves emerge from the crown in an alternate pattern. The following table represents the staging system for the sugarbeet up to the nine-leaf stage. The staging method designates the leaf stages V 1.0 to V 9.0. Leaves are counted when the leaf blade is fully unrolled. Stage G V1.0 Description Germination stages prior to emergence Cotyledons emerged and no evidence of first or second leaf V1.1 V1.5 Cotyledons and first and second leaf just visible Cotyledons present and at least 50% of next leaves unrolled V1.9 Cotyledons present and at least 90% of next leaves unrolled, but not completely V2.0 Two leaves unrolled and third leaf not visible

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Stage V2.1 V2.5

Description Two leaves unrolled and third leaf just visible Two leaves unrolled and third leaf at least 50% unrolled V2.9 Two leaves unrolled and third leaf 90% unrolled

Each subsequent leaf stage (V3.0 V8.9) is described similarly. As crop development progresses beyond V2.0 leaf stage, two or more developing leaves are always present. Therefore, true V3.0, V4.0; etc. growth stages are not possible. The system uses decimal fraction of each leaf stage to allow better separation between leaf stages and increase accuracy of GDD predictions. The decimal fractions are used to represent the percentage or amount of the next emerging leaf that has unrolled. For example, if a plant has three fully unrolled leaves and the fourth leaf is approximately 60 percent unrolled, the stage is V3.6. At later leaf stages when several unrolled leaves may be present, use the most advanced leaf of the recent emerged pair in the estimate; be sure to never count the cotyledons. Turn over for pictures of different sugarbeet growth stages for further guidance. Figure 12. Sugar Beet Growth Stages

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2.4

Adaptation and Production Potential

2.4.1 Climatic Requirements: Temperature, Water, Soil Requirements. In general, maize can grow optimally in areas with this characteristic : Soil Well drained, loamy to clay loam pH 6.5 to 8.0 tolerate mild salinity pH <6 can not be grown Season & Climate Oct Nov to March May (sub tropical varieties) Optimum temperature regimes Germination : 20 - 25 0 C Growth and maturity :30 - 35 0 C Sugar accumulation :25 - 35 0 C Less water requirement. : (400-500 mm) Sugarbeets primarily grow tops until the leaf canopy completely covers the soil surface in a field. This normally takes 70 to 90 days from planting. Optimal daytime temperatures are 60 to 80F for the first 90 days of plant growth. The most favorable environment for producing a sugarbeet crop from 90 days after emergence to harvest is bright, sunny days with 65 to 80F temperatures followed by nighttime temperatures of 40 to 50F. These environmental conditions maximize yield and quality in a sugarbeet crop. Sugarbeets are well adapted to a wide range of soil types. Sugarbeets produced on coarse textured sandy soils to high organic matter, high clay content, silty clay or silty clay loam soils. A soil free or nearly free of stones is particularly desirable. Stones cause problems for sugarbeet planting, thinning, harvesting and processing equipment. Dryland sugarbeet production generally is limited to soils with high water holding capacities in areas with 20 in. of rainfall or more. Sugarbeets are successfully produced under irrigation in regions with very low rainfall.

2.5

Crop Production

2.5.1 Sowing Sugarbeets are planted with precision row crop planters. Plate and cell wheel planters or newer vacuum or air planters all work well. Sugarbeets may be planted to thin to a final stand or space planted to a desired final plant population. Seeding rates vary from 1 to 2 lbs 26 | P a g e

of seed/acre. Sugarbeet planters should not be operated at more than four miles per hour. Planting speeds greater than four miles per hour result in increased skips, increased seed doubles or triples and seed damage. Sugarbeet seed should not be planted greater than 1.5 in. deep. Sugar beet can be cultivated on a wide range of soils but a deep soil (> 1 m) is better adapted to its long tap root. The crop grows well between pH 6,5 to 8 and tolerates saline soils better than sugar cane. Soil preparation is similar to other crops. But extra care should be taken to have a thin seedbed: one or several harrowing is needed after plowing in order to break the clods. The ideal sowing depth is 2.5 cm (maximum 3 cm). Soil structure should be maintained in order to avoid water clogging and the lack of oxygen in the soil. The optimum population is 100.000 plants/ha (42.000 plants/a). This can generally be achieved with an initial sowing density of 1.2 unit/ha (considering a 80-85% germination rate and knowing that each unit contains 100.000 seeds). But, if difficult conditions are expected at emergence, it may be useful to sow at a higher density and to have a light thinning once the crop is well established. Sugar beet can be sown by hand or mechanically, 1 seed per hole, either on a flat bed (50 cm between rows and 16-17 cm between plants for a sowing density of 1,2 unit/ha) or on ridges, which can be very practical for irrigation. Tropical sugar beet is monogerm: a single plant comes out of each seed and therefore thinning is not needed. The ideal sowing period will depend on the region where sugar beet is grown (climate and crop rotation); an appropriate sowing window would have to combine warm temperatures on a well drained soil, and will have to be followed by mild rainfalls.

2.5.2

Fertilizer Sugarbeets are unique in their nitrogen (N) requirements. Too little nitrogen results in

poor leaf canopies, premature yellowing and reduced yields, while too much nitrogen leads to a reduced sucrose content, increased impurities and lowered sucrose extraction. For proper nitrogen management, pregrowing season soil nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) should be determined in a reputable laboratory that uses appropriate procedures and interpretations. NO3-N is mobile in the soil so residual nitrogen level should be determined annually. Phosphorus and potassium should be determined every three to four years.

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Sugarbeet quality involves two concepts: the percent sucrose in the root and the level of impurities in the root, both of which affect sucrose extraction by the processor. Production of high quality sugarbeets is especially important to growers whose payment is based on the extractable sucrose content of their beets. Proper nitrogen fertilizer use normally increases yield of both roots and sucrose and also may increase impurities and decrease the percent sucrose in the root. Use soil test information to select fields with nitrogen levels suited to expected yields, and to select fertilizer rates appropriate for expected yield goals. Excessive amounts of either residual or fertilizer nitrogen usually significantly lowers beet quality. Sugarbeets require 8 to 9 lbs of nitrogen/ton to produce a high quality, good yielding crop. Table 5 shows the nitrogen, phosphate and potash recommendations for sugarbeets.

Table 5. Nitrogen, phosphate and potash recommendations for sugarbeets

*Subtract amount of NO3-N in top 2 feet of soil from these figures to determine the amount of N fertilizer to apply.

2.5.3 Weeding Sugarbeets are poor competitors with weeds from emergence until the sugarbeet leaves shade the ground. Emerging sugarbeets are small, lack vigor, and take approximately two months to shade the ground. Thus, weeds have a long period to become established and compete. Sugarbeets are relatively short even after they shade the ground so many weeds that become established in a field prior to ground shading will become taller than the sugarbeets, shade the sugarbeets, and cause severe yield losses. To avoid yield loss from weed competition, weeds should be totally controlled by four weeks after sugarbeet emergence and weed control should be maintained throughout the season. A combination of cultural, chemical, and mechanical weed control methods should be used to maximize weed control in sugarbeets. Some weed species such as kochia, common mallow, common milkweed, and velvetleaf are difficult or impossible to control selectively in

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sugarbeets with herbicides. These weeds in particular, and all weeds in general, should be effectively controlled in other crops in the rotation. Spot spraying or hand weeding small areas should be used to prevent establishment of problem weeds. Sugarbeets should not be planted on fields badly infested with problem weeds. Cultivation with a row crop cultivator is a universal and essential weed control method in sugarbeets. Also, the rotary hoe or spring tine harrow can be used to remove small weeds from well rooted sugar beets. Hand weeding is still an important method of weed control in sugarbeets Generally herbicides will be more cost effective than hand weeding in moderate to heavy weed densities. Hand weeding may be more cost effective in low weed densities, especially if the target weed species are herbicide tolerant or too large for effective control.

2.5.4

Pests Management Our seeds can be coated with plant protection products that will protect the crop

against most early attacks of insects and fungi. The type of pests and diseases occurring later in the season will often depend on the region where sugar beet is cultivated. Nevertheless: Powdery mildew and cercospora are two leaf diseases that are found almost everywhere; a foliar spray with an appropriate fungicide is strongly advised when first symptoms appear. Some insects (ex. leaf eating caterpillars) might also from time to time attack the crop later in the season; the use of an insecticide must then be evaluated on a case by case basis.

2.5.5 Harvesting Sugar beet has no ripening stage. If well managed (no damage due to root rots and leaf diseases), the crop can continue to grow almost indefinitely. In practice, harvest is often done after 4, 5 or 6 months. Sugar beet can be harvested by hand or mechanically. The leaves usually stay in the field where they are used as green manure. The amount of soil on the root at harvest should be limited as much as possible.

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BAB III : GRAIN LEGUMES SOYBEAN (Glycine max)

3.1 Uses of Soybean Soybean has great potential as a major source of protein for the Indonesian people. As an inexpensive protein source, it has long been known and used in a great variety of food products, such as tofu, tempe, tauco and kecap. Soybean provides as much or more protein and calories than animal products. Approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and vegetable oil. Soybeans can be broadly classified as vegetable (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild, nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is preeminent for its high (38-45%) protein content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Soybeans are the second-most valuable agricultural export in the United States behind corn. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption. a. Oil Soybean seed contains about 19% oil. To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil", or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean meal is used mainly as animal feed. b. Meal Soybean meal is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean flakes, with a 50% soy protein content. The meal is toasted (amisnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill. Soybean meal is an essential element of the American production method of growing farm animals, such

as poultry and swine, on an industrial scale that began in the 1930s; and more recently theaquaculture of catfish.

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c. Flour Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI), for uses such as extruder cookingof textured vegetable protein. It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.

Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less

than 1% oil.

Full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about

18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content, a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill must be used for grinding rather than the more common hammer mill.

Low-fat soy flour is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid

content varies according to specifications, usually between 4.5% and 9%.

High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted

flour at the level of 15%.

Lecithinated soy flour is made by adding soybean lecithin to defatted, low-fat or

high-fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying properties. The lecithin content varies up to 15%. d. Infant formula Soy-based infant formula (SBIF) is used for infants who are allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms. Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula

3.2

Production In Indonesia, soybean is an important component of the national food supply. It is not

only a protein source, but also a source of minerals, vitamins and fat. In 100 gram of soybean, there are 33.3 g protein, 15 g fat, 213 mg calcium, 0.65 vitamin B1, 0.23 mg vitamin B2 and vitamin C (Hermana, 1985). The availability of soybean in country will improve the nutriention of society through the consumption of soybean and its processed products such as tofu, tempe, and soy sauce. The demand for soybean is increasing since the industrial sector based on soybean product has been growing significantly.

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Soybean imports are used as food for both animals and humans. The volume of soybean imports in 1994 was 800,000 ton and in 1995, it increased to 807,000 ton. In the period 1997-1998, imports of soybean increased continually. National production was, on average, 12.11 Kw/ha in 2001. This was well below experimental yields that averaged 20-30 Kw/ha in 2001. Government efforts to increase soybean production have had only minor success. The low productivity is caused both by a lack of significant improvements in technology and poor management techniques. The overall result has been a declining domestic production and an upward trend in soybean imports.

Table 6. Area, Production, Productivity, Supply, and Demand for Soybean from 1997-2001

Source: PSE dan Bappenas (2002)

Soybean production decreased about 0.81 percent annually. Area decreased about 0.52% annually. Productivity decreased about 0.29% annually. In Java, increasing population caused the decline in area. Area in the outer islands was relatively stabile. Total demand for soybean, either for food and animal use, increased about 2.21% per year. The result was a widening import gap. A number of constraints have held back domestic production: 1. Suitable land extension is limited because of the high degree of acidity in most other parts of the country. 2. Most additional land that could potentially grow soybean is hilly and rolling, so it leads to easy erosion. 3. 4. Farmers have not adopted improved technology Fluctuating prices have made soybeans risky

3.3

Morphology, Growth and Development

3.3.1 Morphology Habitat:

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Grown in areas where the summer is hot and rather damp; withstand excessive heat or severe winters; grown on a wide range of soils.

Habit:

Erect, bushy pubescent annual with grey hairs on all parts of the plants; some are prostate and twining, a tendency which increases with shade; determinate cultivars develop terminal inflorescence; indeterminate cultivars shows axillary inflorescence.

Roots:

Taproot, nodules small spherical sometimes lobed.

Stem:

Branched; buds in axils of cotyledons. The primary leaves do not normally develop unless tip damaged.

Leaves:

Alternate, trifoliate, rarely five foliage; petiole long narrow, cylindrical; stipules, small lanceolate, stipels minute; leaflets ovate to lanceolate, usually palea green in colour, base rounded; apex acute or obtuse; lateral leaflets often slightly oblique; most cultivars drop leaves when pods begin to mature.

Inflorescence:

Short clustered axillary raceme; terminal if determine type.

Flowers:

Small, bracteoles two, ovate, acute.

Calyx:

Hairy, persistent, united for half-length with two upper and three lower lobes.

Corolla:

White or lilac; standard ovate, emarginated (notched at the extremity); wings narrow, obovate; keel shorter that wings, not fused along upper surface.

Androecium:

Stamens monadelphous; vexillary stamens free at the base; anthers uniform, globose.

Gynoecium:

Hairy sessile, few ovuled, style curved, glabrous, stigma capitate.

Fruit:

Pod; borne is cluster on short stalks; pale yellow, grey or black; slightly curved.

Seed:

Globose; testa straw yellow; green, brown or black or blotched and mottled in combination of these colours, hilum small; cotyledon yellow or green.

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Pollination:

Self-pollination is the rule. Flowers open in the early morning and pollen is shed just before or at the time of opening and is shed directly onto the stigma. Bees and other insects visit flowers so that cross-pollination can take place, but is usually less than one per cent.
Figure 13. Morphology of Soybean

3.3.2 Growth and Development The soybean is a dicotyledonous plant that exhibits epigeal (above the surface) emergence. During germination, the cotyledons are pushed through the soil to the surface by an elongating hypocotyl. Because of the energy required to push the large cotyledons through heavy soils, soybeans generally emerge best if they are planted no deeper than 2 inches. After emergence, the green cotyledons open and supply the developing leaves with stored energy, while capturing a small amount of light energy.

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The first leaves to develop are the unifoliolate leaves. Two of these single leaves appear directly opposite one another above the cotyledons. All subsequent leaves are trifoliolates comprised of 3 leaflets. Soybean development is characterized by two distinct growth phases. The first is the vegetative stages (V) that cover development from emergence through flowering The second is the reproductive (R) stages from flowering through maturation. a. Vegetative stages Germination Stage The radical, or primary root, is first to emerge from the seed. Shortly afterward, the hypocotyl (stem) emerges and begins growing toward the soil surface pulling the cotyledons (seed leaves) with it. This hook-shaped hypocotyl straightens out once emerged and as the cotyledons unfold. Emergence normally takes five to ten days depending on temperature, moisture conditions, variety and planting depth. During this time, lateral roots are also beginning to grow from the primary root. Cotyledon Stage In this stage unifoliolate leaves are fully expanded. The cotyledons supply the nutrient needs of the young plant (for about seven to 10 days). The cotyledons will lose about 70% of their dry weight to this nutrient reallocation. First trifoliolate The first trifoliolate is fully emerged and opened. Second node Plants are 6-8 inches tall and have three nodes with two unfolded leaflets. Active nitrogen fixation from the bacteria is just beginning to occur. Most of these root nodules are within 10 inches of the soil surface with millions of bacteria in each nodule. Nodules that are pink or red inside are active in nitrogen fixation. White, brown or green nodules are not efficiently fixing nitrogen and are probably parasitic on the plant. Third to Fifth nodes Soybean plants are about 7-9 inches tall with four nodes (three unfolded leaflets). The number of branches seen on the plant may increase at this point. At this stage the plant normally has axillary buds in the top stem that will develop into flower clusters (racemes). Sixth node Plants are often 12 to 14 inches tall at this stage with seven nodes with unfolded leaflets. The unifoliolate and cotyledons may have senesced from the plant. New stages are

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quickly unfolding every two to three days. Lateral roots have crossed over the row underground in any rows 30 inches or less b. Reproductive Stages Flower Initiation At least one flower is located on the plant at any node on the main stem. Plants have lengthened to 15-18 inches tall. Soybean flowering always initiates on the third to sixth node on the main stem depending on vegetative stage when flowering begins. This flower initiation will progress up and down the plant. Branches eventually also flower. Within each raceme, the flowering will occur from the base to the tip, so basal pods are always more mature. Full Bloom stage Soybeans are around 17-22 inches. An open flower is seen at one of the two top nodes of the main stem. At least one of these two upper nodes shows a fully developed leaf. At this stage, the soybean has accumulated about 25% of its total dry weight and nutrients and has obtained about 50% of its mature height. Pod Initiation Plants can be up to 23-32 inches tall. A pod on the upper four nodes is 3/16 inch long. Temperature or moisture stress at this time can affect yield through total pod number, bean number per pod or seed size. Full Pod This stage shows rapid pod growth and the beginning of seed development at the beginning of the full pod stage. This stage is the most crucial period for seed yield. Seed Initiation Seed filling during this stage requires much water and nutrients from the plant. Redistribution of nutrients in the plant occurs with the soybean providing about a half of needed N, P and K from the plant's vegetative parts and about a half from N fixation and nutrient uptake by the roots. Full Seed This stage is also known as the "green bean" stage or beginning full seed stage, and total pod weight will peak during this stage. Growth rate of the beans is rapid Initial Maturity This stage begins with one normal pod on the main stem which obtains the mature color (brown or tan). Dry matter begins to peak in individual seeds. This is visually seen when all green color is lost from both the seeds and pods (they appear yellow). Seeds contain about 60% moisture at physiological maturity. 36 | P a g e

Full Maturity On the soybean plant, 95% of the pods have reached their mature color and only five to 10 days of good drying weather after this stage will be required to have the soybeans at less than 15% moisture, or harvest moisture

3.4

Adaptation and Production Potential

3.4.1 Climatic Requirements: Temperature, Water, Soil Requirements. Soybeans grow best in slightly acid soil but can tolerate a wide range of pH (pH 5.8 to 7.0). Soil pH also affects the types and ability of soil organisms to live, including nitrogenfixing bacteria. Humus in soil will buffer extremes in pH, and lime can be added to amend soil and counteract acid soil.Soybeans need a minimum soil temperature of 55 to 60o Fahrenheit to germinate. Germination rates increase at warmer temperatures. A seed that's in the soil but cannot rapidly germinate and emerge above the soil surface will have a higher chance of exposure to diseases and damping off. Soybean is a hardy plant and well adapted to a variety of soils and soil conditions. Producing the best quality crop and maximum yields will require top quality soil. Thus, soil is one of the first things to consider when planting a crop. A healthy, fertile, workable soil will actually provide seedlings and growing plants with protection from adverse weather including cold, frost, drought, excess water, and protection from pests and diseases. Ideal soil for optimum soybean production is a loose, well-drained loam. Many field have tight, high clay soil that becomes waterlogged when it rains. When the soil dries out, a hard crust surface may form which is a barrier to emerging seedlings. These high clay soils are low in humus and may have imbalance in mineral nutrients. Also, these soils may have few beneficial soil organisms (bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, earthworms and others). High clay soils may be amended with peat moss, sphagnum, organic mulch to increase the humus content. Sand may be added to loosen and aerate the soil and allow better drainage. The advantages of loose, well-aerated soil include 1. movement of air to roots and nitrogen-fixing root nodules, 2. increased water-holding capacity with adequate drainage, 3. reduced erosion, 4. reduced weed populations, 5. maintenance of steady and balanced nutrients to roots and balance pH, and

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6. increased potential to protect roots from harmful nematodes, insects pests, and pathogens.

3.5

Crop Production

3.5.1 Sowing, fertilizer, weed and pest management, harvesting Most farmers plant the seed in rows; About 50% use a plant spacing of 20 x 20 cm. Only 11% of the farmers (but particularly those in Jember) broadcast their seed. The method of planting, whether as monoculture or intercrop, and whether in rows or not, influences the weeding practices. In Jember, where most farmers broadcast their seed, only a small number (24%) weed their crop. In other areas, more than 80% of farmers weed their crop. Farmers generally weed twice in Lampung Tengah, Wonogiri, and Grobogan; in Gunung Kidul and Ponorogo, only one weeding is usual. In the former areas, farmers usually weed 10-15 days and again 30-35 days after planting; in the latter areas, they weed 10-15 days or 20 25 days after planting.

3.5.2 Fertilizer Phosphate and potash fertilizer can be applied broadcast and incorporated into the soil before planting or applied as a starter at planting time. If applied as a starter, the recommended placement of the fertilizer is in a band 2 inches to the side and 2 inches below the seed. "Popup" (a small amount of fertilizer placed in contact with the seed) should not be used on soybean. Soybean is very susceptible to fertilizer salt injury. Since phosphorus and potassium move very little in the soil, it is possible to "build up" or increase the available level of these nutrients in the soil. The application of approximately 20 pounds of P2O5 per acre will increase the phosphorus soil test level by Zinc (Zn) deficiencies have been found in isolated areas in the state. Problem areas are generally limited to sandy soil. However, zinc deficiencies are not uncommon on soils with high calcium carbonate levels at the soil surface or where topsoil has been removed in leveling for irrigation. The first symptom of Zn deficiency in soybean is usually a light green color developing between the veins on the older leaves. New young leaves will be abnormally small. Bronzing of the older leaves may occur. When the deficiency is severe, leaves may develop necrotic spots. Shortened internodes will give plants a stunted, rosetted appearance. Iron (Fe) deficiency (chlorosis) may be observed in soybean, especially on high calcium carbonate level soils during cool, wet periods. The youngest leaves of Fe deficient plants will 38 | P a g e

be distinctly yellow. The interveinal areas of the leaves will be bright yellow while the veins remain green. Soil treatments for correcting Fe deficiences are not usually effective. A suggested foliar treatment would be to dissolve 20 pounds of ferrous sulfate in 100 gallons of water and apply at the rate of 10 to 20 gallons per acre. Profitable yield of soybean is more likely on high testing soils at high levels of management. Plant recommended varieties at optimum stands in narrow rows. Weed control is very important.

3.5.3 Weeding An important goal is stand uniformity. In general, if weeds are controlled, soybeans will yield more in narrow rows than in 30 inch rows. Benefits from narrowing the row width will depend on location, soil conditions, weather conditions, planting date, and variety. In northern and central regions of the U.S., soybeans grown in narrow rows yield more than those grown in corn-width rows. In southern areas, there is a similar trend toward narrower rows and higher yield if good weed control is achieved. The rule of thumb is that the soybean canopy should completely close (cover and shade the space between rows) by flowering time. The faster the soybean canopy closes, the fewer the number of weeds will grow. In narrow rows, weeds can not be cultivated easily.

3.5.4 Pests Management Crop scouting has been used for many years to help identify pest problems and determine what action, if any, should be taken. However, scouting is only one part of an overall approach known as integrated pest management (IPM). The objectives of integrated pest management are to consider all appropriate methods of lowering pest levels (rather than relying solely on chemicals), to use pesticides only according to need, and to help produce crops more profitably. One way to improve profitability is to lower costs. Pesticide costs may be reduced by applying chemicals only when necessary and using only the amount needed to control the pests. To know precisely when to take action against crop pests it is necessary to scout for pests regularly and systematically and to know how many pests must be present before they will cause economic damage to a crop. (This level is called the economic threshold). Some knowledge about the advantages and disadvantages of specific pesticides can be very helpful in selecting the best product and minimum application rate needed for control. Growers are quick to recognize the profit-robbing potential of pests, but it is just as important to realize that using a pesticide when it is not needed can also cut profits. The use of proper 39 | P a g e

scouting procedures and knowledge of economic thresholds can ensure that growers use pesticides properly and realize maximum returns for their investment. The purpose of field scouting is to obtain an objective summary of the pest situation. Some of the information obtained will be useful in making immediate pest control decisions. Other observations will help in knowing what to expect at a comparable time next year.

3.5.5 Harvesting For use as a green vegetable (called edamame), soybean pods should be harvested when the seeds are fully grown but before the pods turn yellow. Most varieties produce beans in usable condition over a period of a week to 10 days. The green beans are difficult to remove from the pods unless the pods are boiled or steamed 4 to 5 minutes, after which they are easily shelled.

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BAB IV : OIL CROP PEANUT (Arachis hypogaea)

In 1753, Linneaus described the domesticated peanut species as Arachis (derived from the Greek arachis, meaning a weed) hypogaea (meaning a underground chamber) or a weed with fruit produced below the soil.

4.1

Uses of Peanut Peanuts have many uses. They can be eaten raw, used in recipes, made into solvents

and oils, used in make-up, medicines, textile materials, peanut butter, as well as many other uses. Popular confections made from peanuts include salted peanuts, peanut

butter (sandwiches, peanut candy bars, peanut butter cookies, and cups), peanut brittle, and shelled nuts (plain/roasted). Salted peanuts are usually roasted in oil and packed in retail-size plastic bags or hermetically sealed cans. Dry roasted salted peanuts are also marketed in significant quantities. Although peanut butter has been a tradition on camping trips and the like because of its high protein content and the fact that it resists spoiling for long periods of time, the primary use of peanut butter is in the home, but large quantities are also used in the commercial manufacture of sandwiches, candy, and bakery products. Boiled peanuts are a preparation of raw, unshelled green peanuts boiled in brine and often eaten as a snack. More recently, fried peanut recipes have emerged - allowing both shell and nut to be eaten. Peanuts are also used in a wide variety of other areas, such as cosmetics, nitroglycerin, plastics, dyes and paints.

4.2

Production The peanut is known by several names throughout the world, such as groundnut and

earth nut, because the seeds develop under the ground. Peanuts are produced on a signicant basis in more than 30 different countries throughout the world. The worldwide production for 2002 was estimated to be in excess of 31 million metri tons (MMT) Indonesian peanut production growth has been trending down in the last 8 years. Post, based on historical growth, predicts that the production will continue declining by approximately 2.5 percent in MY 2011/2012 and MY 2012/2013.

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Figure 14. Indonesian Peanut Production Growth

Source: Indonesian Statistical Agency

Indonesian peanut production is expected to decline from 1.195 MMT peanut in shell equivalent in MY 2010/2011 to 1.165 MMT in MY 2011/2012. The production will further decline to 1.145 MMT in MY 2012/2013. While peanuts provide farmers with a better income than soybeans, limited availability of good planting materials lead the farmers to grow other profitable crops such as corn and cassava. The data show that total certified peanut seed production can only satisfy 1.72 percent of total harvested area in 2009. Conversely, farmers enjoy better access to hybrid corn seed due to continual and reliable supply from big private corn seed companies in Indonesia. Consequently, harvested area of peanut has been declining by minus 3.61 percent per year in the last 8 years. By contrast, harvested area of corn is growing by 1.8 percent per year in the same period. While harvested area of cassava is declining by minus 0.75 percent per year in the last eight years, the cassava area has been consistently at the level of two times larger than that of peanut. Consumption Indonesian peanut consumption for food reached 1.36 MMT peanut-inshell equivalents in MY 2010/2011. The figure implies that Indonesian peanut consumption per capita stayed at approximately 5.6 kilogram per year in MY 2010/2011. Post believes that peanut consumption per capita will stay constant in the next two marketing years. Population growth, therefore, will largely determine food use growth of peanut in Indonesia. Refer to annual population growth of 1.49 percent; Indonesian peanut consumption for food will increase to 1.38 MMT in MY 2011/2012; and 1.4 MMT in MY 2012/2013. Big peanut based

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food manufacturers such as PT. Garuda, PT. Dua Kelinci, Orang Tua Group, and PT. Mitra Foods are accounting for 65 percent of total food use of peanut in Indonesia. Feed use of peanut is predicted to stay constant at around 70,000 MT both in the current and next marketing year. The popularity of peanut oil is declining due to the growing use of palm oil in Indonesia. Consequently, Indonesian peanut supply that goes to peanut mill is predicted to decrease from 65,000 MT in MY 2010/2011 to 35,000 MT in MY 2011/2012. The mills are expected to press less peanut at 20,000 MT in MY 2012/2013.

4.3

Morphology, Growth and Development

4.3.1 Morphology Additional important morphological points are: 1. Perennial, dicotyledonous legume 2. Complex plant 3. Seed a. 2 large cotyledons b. epicotyl with apical meristem and 6-8 differentiated leaves c. hypocotyl d. radicle or primary root root grows ~ 8X faster than shoot during germination and emergence with up to 100 lateral roots and no visible new leaves by the 12 th day after germination. 4. Apical dominance: very little a. two lateral branches arise from the cotyledonary node that equal or exceed the primary stem providing

essentially 3 initial shoot apices. b. runner or virginia types: reproductive branches rarely arise from the primary or central stem.

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4.3.2 Growth and Development Growth stages Germination and emergence A peanut seed has two cotyledons, or seed leaves, and an embryo. After emergence, the cotyledons unfold above the ground. The embryo is not totally protected by the cotyledons and can easily be physically damaged during the harvesting, storage, shelling and planting operations. A damaged embryo will not develop properly, and although it may germinate and establish, yields will be much lower than those of plants from undamaged seed. Plants growing from damaged seed often have a curled or J-shaped root system. This defect can also be a symptom of pre-emergence herbicide damage. Peanut seed germinates best at soil temperatures of 2035C. The radicle, or root, takes one to two days to emerge from the seed. After five days the taproot is 1015 cm long. Lateral roots then start to develop and secondary roots grow from the laterals. After five to ten days, the root is supplying minerals from the soil to the plant. Effective rooting depth of the peanut plant is around 100120 cm. Where there are no soil restrictions, the peanut plant has a long, spike-shaped root up to 150 cm long, with the primary root system branching to a depth of 6080 cm. Emergence through the soil, known as cracking, begins six to fourteen days after planting. Dry or cool soils can delay emergence hard and crusted emergence. Vegetative growth After 20 days there may be eight to ten fully-expanded leaves. Unlike most legumes, peanuts have four leaflets per leaf, which partially fold up at night. Peanut foliage can grow at a rate of 150 to 200 kg per hectare per day once full canopy cover is reached. Peanuts are indeterminate in vegetative and reproductive development. This means the plant does not stop growing in order to flower and produce a crop. They continue to grow leaves and stems while also flowering and setting pods. The pods must, therefore, compete with the shoots for carbohydrate and nutrients. for up to three weeks, often resulting in poor

establishment due to soil-borne disease. Emerging peanut seedlings can push through quite soil, hence the term cracking, but very crusted soil will restrict

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There are differences between varieties. Newer varieties achieve higher pod yields compared to older varieties, because a larger portion of the newer varieties growth goes into pods rather than vegetation. Flowering Flowers can appear throughout the season. The yellow flowers open at night, selfpollinate in the early morning and wither by evening of the same day. Flowers grow along the branches and each node can produce several flowers. Generally only about 15 to 20 per cent of flowers successfully produce a pod. It is possible for a plant to have 200 pods. Drought and temperatures over 35C will reduce the number of flowers produced. If water stress reduces flower number, the plant can recover by producing a flush of flowers when adequate water is received. Low humidity and high temperatures at flowering can cause short- term plant water stress. This results in flowers with pistils that are too short and adversely affects the vitality of the pollen grains, reducing the chances of fertilisation. As peanuts are self-pollinated, bees are not needed and different varieties can be grown side by side with little contamination. Pegging The pegs hang down from the stems and continue to grow until they have penetrated the soil. Since one node can produce several flowers, several pegs can develop from a single node. Pegs may be from 215 cm long. However, those longer than about seven centimetres often do not reach the ground or penetrate the soil adequately. If these long pegs develop a pod, it is more likely to be immature and lost at harvest. Pegs enter the soil 812 days after pollination. The tip of the peg is sharp, allowing it to penetrate the soil to a depth of 17 cm under cool, moist conditions. Most of the pegs that only penetrate 1 to 1.5 cm develop a pod, but the rate of development is slower. As soils become harder it is more difficult for the pegs to penetrate. The pegs are more sensitive to soil compaction than are the roots, so soil moisture, which softens hard soils, can be critical at this stage. The fertilised embryo is in the tip of the peg and begins to develop and enlarge soon after entering the soil. After the tip of the peg enlarges underground it is called a pod. Pod development The period between the peg entering the soil and the shell reaching full size is called pod development. Pod development lasts about 30 days and relies on the soil surface being kept moist. This is a critical time for irrigators.

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Podfill From about 60 days onwards, pods are formed and filled. Pods are full size about three to four weeks after peg burial, even though seed growth inside the pod has barely begun. The shell reaches maximum dry weight well before the kernels. Maturity Crops may take 110170 days (1624 weeks) to reach harvest maturity, depending on variety, planting time, seasonal conditions and location. Temperature largely controls the time to harvest. As peanuts mature, the inside layer of the shell changes colour from white, through yellow, orange, brown to black. This gives an indication of harvest maturity. Once the pods mature the pegs begin to deteriorate, particularly if foliar diseases have affected the crop. Yield loss starts to occur if peanuts are not harvested within 710 days of peak maturity because the pegs weaken and the pods fall off the plant.

4.4

Adaptation and Production Potential

4.4.1 Climatic Requirements: Temperature, Water, Soil Requirements. a. Climate In Indonesia, the peanut crop is planted in lowland match the altitude below 500 m above sea level. Climate Peanut plants need is a high temperature between 25 C - 32 C, slightly humid (RH 65% - 75%), rainfall 800 mm -1300 mm per year, open place. The rain is too hard will result in difficult terserbuki flowers by insects and will increase the humidity in the vicinity of peanut cropping . Irradiation full sun is needed, particularly fertility and the development of the bean leaves. b. Soil Peanut plants need light soil structure, such as land regosol, andosol, latosol and alluvial. Peanuts can be grown in paddy fields berpengairan, rainfed lowland, rainfed upland. The most important thing to be considered in the selection of land are: - The land is fertile, loose and light textured. - Be well-Land, the land is not too muddy and dry well for the growth of peanuts; Lack of water will cause the plants thin, stunted, wilt and eventually die. - PH between 6.0 -6.5. Altitude Venue Optimum planting altitude 50-500 m above sea level, but still able to grow under a height of 1,500 m above sea level.

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4.5.

Crop Production

4.5.1 Sowing The best planting time dilahan moor (dry) is at the beginning of the rainy season (October - November). In the paddy field planting can be done in April-June (Crop I) or JulySeptember) Crop II). Planting is done by using Portugal as deep as 3 cm by 2 points perlubang seed and plant spacing of 40 cm x 10 cm. Then the planting hole is closed by a thin soil.

4.5.2 fertilizer Fertilization is carried out by using urea, SP36 and KCI with a dose of 60-90 kg Urea, 60-90 kg and 50 kg SP36 KCI. Per hectare. Fertilization is done by incorporating manure into the hole on the left-right planting hole or spread evenly into the bolt. Stitching done if there are seeds that do not grow. Stitching is done by making a new planting hole at the former preceding the planting hole. The purpose of this stitching is to maintain the population.

4.5.3 Weeding Weeding is done 2 times. The first weeding was done when the plants 21 days after planting and weeding both done at age 40 bari after planting. At the second weeding was also done pembumbunan namely digemburkan then backfilled soil near the base of the stem of the plant. Aims to facilitate fruit Pembumbunan will penetrate the soil surface so that the optimal growth.

4.5.4 Pests Management Pests that are important for groundnut crop is pest Empoasca. This pest is not too detrimental to peanut crop. How to control by spraying Azodrin, Karphos or lnsektisida available. In the field spread of viruses carried by the insect vector. Insect vector that can transmit disease of peanut mottle are several kinds of aphids of Aphis craccivora, A. glysines, A. porii, Rhopalosiphum maydis, R, paddy. Scizaphis rotundiventrism Trichosiphonaphis sp. Hysteroneura setariae and Mycus persicae.

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4.5.5 Harvesting Determination of appropriate harvest time must be adjusted to the intended use of Peanuts products. General guidelines are used as criteria for determining when Peanut harvest is as follows: - Most of the leaves turn yellow and fall (fall). - 85 -110 day-old plants depends, varieties. - Most of the pods (80%) were older. - Leather pod pretty hard and blackish brown. - The skin is thin and shiny seeds. - Pod cavity has been filled with seeds. Harvest is done by pulling the stem of the plant carefully for pods were not left behind in the soil.

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BAB V : FIBER CROP COTTON (Gossypium hirsutum)

5.1 Uses of Cotton Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is not originally in Indonesia. The crop has been growing to fulfill the need of national textile production. In spite of the Indonesian-textile industry is one of the five biggest of world textile industry, the cotton fiber as the main material of the industry has not been produced in a big scale cotton cultivation. The domestic cotton fiber only supply 0.05% of the need for textile industries (Bahri 2010). Cultivated primarily for its vegetable seed fiber, the raw material for a large volume of textile products, this species is considered the most important of the cotton-yielding plants, providing the bulk of commercial cottons. Linters are of intermediate texture and shorter than those of G. barbadense. Seeds yield a semi-drying and edible oil, used in shortening, margarine, salad and cooking oils, and for protective coverings. Residue, cottonseed cake or meal is important protein concentrate for livestock. Pigg (1980) reports that bread, made with cottonseed protein is an even better source of protein than enriched white bread, six slices of which provide 20% of the adult RDA. Low-grade residue serves as manure, bedding and fuel. Fuzz, which is not removed in ginning, become linters in felts, upholstery, mattresses, twine, wicks, carpets, surgical cottons, and in chemical industries such as rayons, film, shatterproof glass, plastics, sausage skins, lacquers, and cellulose explosives. Folk Medicine Cottonseed and roots have been used in nasal polyps, uterine fibroids and other types of cancer (Hartwell, 19671971). Gossypol has shown anticancer activity in the new LL, WA and PS-150 tumor systems. Mucilaginous tea of fresh or roasted seeds used for bonchitis, diarrhea, dysentry, and hemorrhage. Flowers diuretic and emollient, used for

hypochondriasis. Root decocotion used for asthma, diarrhea, and dysentery. Root bark, devoid of tannin, astringent, antihemorrhoidal; used as an emmenagogue, hemostat, lactagogue, oxytocic, parturient, and vasoconstrictor. Chemistry Root bark contains ca 3% of a reddish acidic resin, a volatile oil, a phenolic acid (probably 2,3-dihydrobenzoic acid; salicylic acid, a colorless phenol, betaine, a fatty alcohol, a phytosterol (C27H46O), a hydrocarbon (probably triacontane), ceryl alcohol and oleic and palmitic acid. Hager's Handbook (List and Horhammer, 19691979) also lists isoquercitrin,

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quercimeritrin, quercetin-3'-glucoside, hirsutrin, isoastragalin, palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, a-pinene, b-caryophyllene, bisabolol, caryophyllenepoxide, bisabolenoxide, abscissin II, serotonin, chrysanthemin, gossypicyanin, and histamine. Toxicity Gossypol, the toxic dihydroxyphenol, occuring in seeds and the glands of seedlings, must be removed before cottonseed can be used for feed. Hogs have died from eating raw seed (Morton, 1974). Per 100 g, the ground seed is reported to contain 7.3 g H 2O, 23.1 g protein, 22.9 g fat, 43.2 g total carbohydrate, 16.9 g fiber, 3.5 g ash, 140 mg Ca, 1.2 mg Mn, 320 mg Mg, 680 mg P, 14 mg Fe, 290 mg Na, 1,110 mg K 240 mg S, 5 mg Cu. Once the oil is removed, the meal contains per 100 g, 7.3 g H 2O, 41.4 g protein, 5.6 g fat, 10.9 g crude fiber, 39.5 g total carbohydrate (6.5 g total sugars, 6.4% lignin), 190 mg Ca, 1.8 mg Cu, 10 mg Fe, 490 mg Mg, 2.3 mg Mn, 1,090 mg P, 1,250 mg K, 50 mg Na, and 400 mg S (Parnell, 1981). Commercial cottonseed contains approximately 92% dry matter, 1620% protein, 18 24% oil, 30% carbohydrates, 22% crude fiber. After ginning, cottonseed includes unginned lint, fuzz, 16% crude oil, 45.5% cake or meal, 25.5% hulls, and 8% linters. Principal pigment in seed is gossypol, a poisonous phenolic compound usually rendered harmless on crushing or heating, but may retain minute amounts to which pigs and chickens are sensitive.

5.2

Production The government has supported the increase of cotton fiber production through imple-

mentation of increasing cotton pro- duction programs (Hasanudin 2007). Development of cotton cultivation started through a program namely In- tensive Cotton Development for Small- holders Scheme in 1978/79 which includes area of 22.000 ha (Ditjenbun 1999). The cotton cultivation was concentrated in South Sulawesi, East Java, Central Java, East Nusa Tenggara and West Nusa Tenggara. However, the program did not develop well in the context of area, which is gradually dwindling and in 2006 planting season the area was only recorded 7,000 ha, which is only 45% of the targeted area (Hasanudin 2007). Furthermore, the average productivity of seed cotton in farmers level is very low, i.e., 300 500 kg/ha, very much lower than the potential of the crop production (2,000 2,500 kg/ha). The obscurity in cotton development is due to non-technical problems, such as the unavailability of input production in a right time, and also technical problem such as insect pests damage.

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Table. 7 Cotton Production

5.3

Morphology, Growth and Development

5.3.1 Morphology In nature, G. hirsutum is a perennial shrub that grows to approximately 1.52 m in height, while G. barbadense grows to approximately 3 m in height. Commercially, however, both species are cultivated as approximately 11.5 m tall annuals, with destruction of plants after harvesting the fruit for seed and fibre. Cotton plants have an indeterminate growth habit, meaning the plant can develop leaves, stems, flowers, fruit (bolls) and seed all at the same time. The branches on the cotton plant can be classified as either vegetative or fruiting branches. Vegetative branches have only one meristem and so grow long and straight, whereas fruiting branches have multiple meristems, each starting after the previous fruiting bud and as such exhibit a zig-zag growth habit. The first five main stem nodes support primarily vegetative growth and fruiting branches commence thereafter, with branches

showing alternate phyllotaxy as shown in Figure 15 (Oosterhuis & Jernstedt 1999; Ritchie et al. 2007). Figure 15.(a) a defoliated cotton plant shows the 83 alternate phyllotaxy of branches. Each branch is 83 of a turn around the stem from the branch below it. The branches form from the axils of main stem leaves. Figure 15. (b) a diagram of the general timing of flower emergence from buds on the fruiting branches by fruiting position. (used with permission from Ritchie et al. 2007) 51 | P a g e

Figure 15. Cotton Plant Morphology.

5.3.2 Growth and Development Cotton flowers are large (59 cm), perfect (that is contain both male and female structures) and pentamerous (parts arranged in fives). They have both floral and extra- floral nectaries (Moffett 1983). The style is 25 cm long and terminates in the 0.5-1 cm-long stigma. The ovary contains 510 ovules in each of 35 sections, or locules. The stamina sheath, which encloses most of the style, bears numerous stamens 0.51 cm long, each terminating in an anther that normally produces an abundance of viable self-fertile pollen (McGregor 1976). There are approximately 20,000 pollen grains per flower (Ter Avanesian 1978). Agronomically, the growth of cotton can be divided into three key developmental phases: (1) reproduction and dispersal, (2) germination and seedling establishment and (3) leaf area and canopy development. Total developmental time for G. hirsutum, from germination to maturation of the first fruit, is usually approximately 1517 weeks, although this may be affected by temperature and other environmental variables (Oosterhuis & Jernstedt 1999; Ritchie et al. 2007).

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5.4

Adaptation and Production Potential

5.4.1 Climatic Requirements: Temperature, Water, Soil Requirements Upland Cotton is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 2.9 (irrigated) to 27.8 dm (mean of 36 cases = 11.3), annual temperature of 7.0 to 27.8C (mean of 36 cases = 20.7) Cotton tolerates a soil pH in the range from 4.5 to 8.5, but it grows better from pH 5.7 to 7.0. Below pH 5.7, an aglime application can correct the acidity, increase the availability of plant nutrients, add calcium and magnesium to the soil, and improve soil physical conditions. Above pH 7.0, application of anhydrous ammonia and continued cropping will tend to reduce soil pH over time. When the soil pH falls below 6.0, nutrients with reduced availability include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Nutrients with increased availability include boron, manganese, zinc, iron, and copper. In acid soils (i.e., soils with a low pH) manganese and aluminum may increase in availability to the point that they become toxic to cotton.

5.5

Crop Production

5.5.1 Sowing Seeds of some cultivars require a 23 month period of dormancy. Seeds lose viability quickly under moist conditions. Commercial cotton is always grown from seed, sown when soil temperatures are at least 18C. Seed sown in drills or in hills. The hill-drop method is perhaps best if hand-hoe labor is used. Plant 2.5 cm deep under normal conditions. Seed rate of 1728 kg/ha gives a good stand with 75,000150,000 plants/ha, allowing for some losses. Row width of 100 cm is most suitable for mechanization. Seedbed preparation should include eradication of residue from past crops, maintenance of drainage, good tilth, elimination of hardpans, control of weeds and pests. Periodic cultivation and weeding is practiced. Chemical herbicides are routine in many countries. Insect control is one of the most costly items. Pre- and post-planting pesticide application is practiced. Irrigation is used when soil moisture is inadequate or when soil is poor in moisture-holding ability. An increasing amount of cotton is grown under irrigation yearly.

5.5.2 Fertilizers Are also a major item; for large harvests nutrients must be continually replaced. Amounts depend on soils; local agents should be consulted. Rotation is a recommended 53 | P a g e

practice. Short rainy seasons often allow only the single crop to be grown. Where possible, a rotation of fallow, wheat, fallow, peas, cotton, fallow has proved practical. Cotton requires at least 16 nutrients for growth and reproduction. A deficiency in any one of those nutrients will reduce yield. Most of those nutrients are obtained from the

soil. For convenience, the nutrients may be grouped as: organic nutrients--oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon; primary nutrients--nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium;

secondary nutrients calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; and micronutrients boron, manganese, zinc, iron, chlorine, copper, and molybdenum.

5.5.3 Weeding Although the weed spectrum varies between fields, there are commonly 6070 weed species found in cotton fields Weeds may impact on the crop in a number of ways, primarily in competition for water and nutrients (Charles 1991). Weeds are commonly managed with a combination of herbicides and hand chipping (Charles 1991). The cotton CRC has developed an Integrated Weed Management guide for cotton which advocates reducing reliance on single herbicide groups and incorporating chipping and cultivation (Roberts & Charles 2002). This should also involve crop rotations, farm hygiene to prevent weed seed spreading and may involve the use of herbicide resistant varieties (Charles 2002). The introduction of Roundup Ready GM G. hirsutum has altered the herbicides which are used in cotton fields.

5.5.4 Pests Management. More than 1326 species of insects have been reported in commercial cotton fields worldwide but only a small proportion are pests (Matthews & Tunstall 1994) with the type and number of pests differing from season to season and between different regions. Bt cotton as a component of pest management technically pre empts the use of other bioagents viz., Trichogramma chilonis and Helicoverpa armigera nuclear

polyhedrosis virus (HaNPV), mechanical control, use of pheromones and insecticides against bollworms. E Biorationals such as Bacillus thuringiensis, HaNPV, Neem seed kernel extract and neem oil can be used as an initial sprays when H. armigera egg numbers and early instars are more on conventional cotton. E Always target younger stages of bollworms as they are susceptible to the normal recommended dosages of insecticides. E Rotation of chemical groups along the crop phenology helps in preventing the build up of resistance and increases the life of insecticides. 54 | P a g e

E Early crop maturity decreases the period of crop susceptibility to yield loss by insects, reduces insect control costs and lowers selection pressure for insecticide resistance development.

5.5.5 Harvesting. Planting to flowering is 80110 days with another 5580 days until the boll opens. Hand-harvesting still accounts for the largest percentage of harvest in spite of advances in mechanization. Hand methods provide a higher grade of cotton and gets more from the fields. One man can pick about 50110 kg of seed cotton per day. On the average a two-row mechanical picker can harvest 1,400 kg of seed cotton per hour. Proper ginning is important in determining the quality of the fiber and the price. Seed removal is done almost exclusively by one of many ginning processes on the market today. After linters and fuzz have been removed from seed, the oil is expressed.

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REFERENCES

Achmad I. Fauzi, Fahmuddin Agus, Sukarman, and Kusumo Nugroho. 2011. Characterizing The Soil for Improved Nutrient Management In Selected Maize Growing Areas of Indonesia. Bogor, Indonesia. Dwi Hajrial Rusmilah. Resistance to Peanut Stripe Virus in Transgenic Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) Carrying PStV cp Gene Was Stabile up to Seven Generations of Selfing. Bogor Agricultural Univesity Gerpacio, and P.L. Pingali. 2004. Maize in Indonesia: Production Systems, Constraints, and Research Priorities. Mexico, D.F. CIMMYT. H. Van den berg and a. S. Lestari fao. 2000. Improving Local Cultivation of Soybean In Indonesia. Malang, Indonesia Michael L. Morris. 1998. Maize Seed Industries in Developing Countries. Published in association with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) Apdo. Mexico Nurindah and Dwi Adi Sunarto. 2011. Developing Cotton IPM by Conserving Parasitoids and Predators of The Main Pest . Malang, Indonesia Sugiarti Meylinah and Jonn Slett. 2010. Indonesia Cotton and Products. Annual Report. GAIN Report Number: ID1009 Vennila. V. K. Biradar Mr. M. Sabesh Dr. O. M. Bambawale Dr. B. M. Khadi Mrs. M. Chakrabarty . 2007. Tips on Cotton Insect Pest Management for Production of Good Quality Cotton. New Delhi. Wolter Elbersen, Leo Oyen. 2010. Tropical Sugar Beet (Beta vulgaris L.) Potential of Tropical Sugar Beet for Bio-ethanol Production

http://soybean.uwex.edu/library/soybean/morphology/documents/04_soy_growth_developme nt.pdf http://www.uncapsa.org/Publication/cg3.pdf http://osu.altus.ok.us/Chapter%206%20Cotton%20Fertility.pdf http://www1.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/ce97fd80472308938250ab2b131bed2a/Weather%2BI ndex%2BInsurance%2BReport.pdf?MOD=AJPERES

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