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Periodic Classification
Periodic Classification
ThePeriodicTable AHistoricalPerspective
DavidA.Katz David A Katz
DepartmentofChemistry PimaCommunityCollege y g Tucson,AZ,USA
Listed33Substances Simples(elements)inhis Trait lmentaire de Chimie (1789) Inhislistareincludedlight I hi li i l d d li h (lumire)andcaloric (calorique),whichhe believedtobematerial believed to be material substances.
TheAtomicTheory
JohnDalton(17661844)
NewSystemofChemical Philosophy,1808 All bodies are constituted of a vast Allbodiesareconstitutedofavast numberofextremelysmall p particles,oratomsofmatterbound , togetherbyaforceofattraction Theultimateparticlesofall homogeneousbodiesareperfectly alikeinweight,figure,etc.
JnsJakobBerzelius(17791848)
FromAnnalsofPhilosophy 2,443454(1813),3,512,93106,244255, 353364(1814): Thechemicalsignsoughttobeletters,forthegreaterfacilityof writing,andnottodisfigureaprintedbook.Thoughthislast circumstancemaynotappearofanygreatimportance,itoughttobe avoidedwheneveritcanbedone.Ishalltake,therefore,forthe chemicalsign,theinitialletteroftheLatinnameofeachelementary substance: butasseveralhavethesameinitialletter,Ishall , distinguishtheminthefollowingmanner: 1.IntheclasswhichIcallmetalloids,Ishallemploythe initialletteronly,evenwhenthisletteriscommontothe metalloidandsomemetal. 2.Intheclassofmetals,Ishalldistinguishthosethathave thesameinitialswithanothermetal,orametalloid,by writingthefirsttwolettersoftheword. 3.Ifthefirsttwolettersbecommontotwometals,Ishall, , , inthatcase,addtotheinitialletterthefirstconsonantwhich theyhavenotincommon:forexample,S=sulphur, Si=silicium,St=stibium (antimony),Sn =stannum (tin), C=carbonicum,Co=cobaltum (cobalt),Cu=cuprum(copper), , ( ), p ( pp ), O=oxygen,Os=osmium,&c.
ElementsknowntoBerzelius
Name Oxygen Sulphur S l h Phosphorus Muriatic radicle (chlorine) Fluoric radicle Boron Carbon Symbol O S P M F B C Name Tungsten Antimony A i Tellurium Symbol Tn Sb Te Name Palladium Silver Sil Mercury Copper Nickel Cobalt Bismuth Lead Tin Iron Zinc Symbol Pa Ag A Hg Cu Ni Co Bi Pb Sn Fe Zn Name Uranium Cerium C i Yttrium Glucinum (beryllium) Aluminum Symbol U Ce C Y Gl Al
Columbium Cl (nioblium) Titanium Zirconium Silicium Osmium Iridium Rhodium Platinum Gold Ti Zr Si Os I Rh Pt Au
y Molybdenum Mo Chromium Ch
Manganese Ma
WilliamProut(17851850)
ProutsHypothesis:
IntwopapersOntheRelationbetweentheSpecific GravitiesofBodiesintheirGaseousStateandthe Gravities of Bodies in their Gaseous State and the WeightsoftheirAtoms(AnnalsofPhilosophy,1815, 1816),Prouthypothesizedthattheatomicweightof e e yee e t sa everyelementisanintegermultipleofthatof tege u t p e o t at o hydrogen,suggestingthatthehydrogenisthe fundamentalparticlethattheatomsofotherelements aremade.
Iftheviewwehaveventuredtoadvancebecorrect,wemayalmostconsiderthe (tr.:primalmatter)oftheancientstoberealisedinhydrogen;anopinion,bytheby,not altogethernew.Ifweactuallyconsiderthistobethecase,andfurtherconsiderthespecific gravitiesofbodiesintheirgaseousstatetorepresentthenumberofvolumescondensedinto iti f b di i th i t t t t th b f l d di t one;or,inotherwords,thenumberoftheabsoluteweightofasinglevolumeofthefirst matter()whichtheycontain,whichisextremelyprobable,multiplesinweight mustalwaysindicatemultiplesinvolume,andviceversa;andthespecificgravities,or absoluteweightsofallbodiesinagaseousstate,mustbemultiplesofthespecificgravityor b l t i ht f ll b di i t t tb lti l f th ifi it absoluteweightofthefirstmatter(),becauseallbodiesinagaseousstatewhich unitewithoneanotherunitewithreferencetotheirvolume.
JohannWolfgangDbereiner(17801849)
DbereinerTriads: Inhispaper,AnAttempttoGroupElementary SubstancesaccordingtoTheirAnalogies S b di Th i A l i (Poggendorf'sAnnalenderPhysikundChemie, 1829), Dbereinergroupedelementstoshowthatatomic weightsofamiddleelementwereanaverageoftwo weights of a middle element were an average of two similarelements.
ExamplesofDbereiner Triads: Examples of DbereinerTriads: theatomicweightofbrominemightbethearithmeticalmeanoftheatomic weightsofchlorineandiodine.Thismeanis(35.470+126.470)/2=80.470This numberisnotmuchgreaterthanthatfoundbyBerzelius(78.383) Usingmodernvalues: Cl=35.45 Br=79.90 I=126.90
ExamplesofDbereinerTriads:(continued) the specific gravity and atomic weight of strontia are very close to the arithmetic mean of thespecificgravityandatomicweightofstrontiaareveryclosetothearithmeticmeanof thespecificgravitiesandatomicweightsoflimeandbaryta,since [356.019(=Ca.)+956.880(=Ba.)]/2=656.449(=Sr.)andtheactualvalueforstrontiais647.285. Usingmodernvalues: Ca=40.08 Sr=87.62 S 87 62 Ba=137.33 Inthealkaligroup,accordingtothisview,sodastandsinthemiddle,sinceifwetakethevalue fortheatomicweightoflithia,determinedbyGmelin,=195.310,andthevalueforpotash= 589.916,thenthearithmeticmeanofthesenumbers,(195.310+589.916)/2=392.613,which comesveryclosetotheatomicvalueforsoda,whichBerzeliusdeterminedas=390.897. Usingmodernvalues: Li=6.94 Na=22.99 Na = 22 99 K=39.10 Ifsulfur,selenium,andtelluriumbelongtoonegroup,whichcanwellbeassumed,sincethe specificgravityofseleniumisexactlythearithmeticmeanofthespecificgravitiesofsulfurand tellurium,andallthreesubstancescombinewithhydrogentoformcharacteristichydrogen ll d ll h b b hh d f h h d acids,thenseleniumformsthemiddlemember,since[32.239(=S)+129.243(=Te)]/2=80.741 andtheempiricallyfoundatomicvalueforseleniumis79.263. Usingmodernvalues: S=32.07 Se=78.96 Te=127.60
DeChancourtoiswasthefirstscientisttoseetheperiodicityofelements De Chancourtois was the first scientist to see the periodicity of elements whentheywerearrangedinorderoftheiratomicweights.Hesawthatthe similarelementsoccurredatregularatomicweightintervals.
JohnA.R.Newlands(18371898) LawofOctaves L fO
From1863through1866,Newlandspublished papersontherelationshipsbetweenthe h l i hi b h elements.In1865hestated:
Iftheelementsarearrangedintheorderoftheir equivalents,withafewslighttranspositions,asin theaccompanyingtable,itwillbeobservedthat elementsbelongingtothesamegroupusually appearonthesamehorizontalline.
Newlandscontinued:
Itwillalsobeseenthatthenumbersofanalogouselements generallydiffereitherby7orbysomemultipleofseven;in otherwords,membersofthesamegroupstandtoeach otherinthesamerelationastheextremitiesofoneormore other in the same relation as the extremities of one or more octavesinmusic.Thus,inthenitrogengroup,between nitrogenandphosphorusthereare7elements;between phosphorusandarsenic,14;betweenarsenicandantimony, h h d i 14 b t i d ti 14;andlastly,betweenantimonyandbismuth,14also. ThispeculiarrelationshipIproposetoprovisionallytermthe This peculiar relationship I propose to provisionally term the "LawofOctaves".
Right:Mendeleevsfirstsketchofhisperiodictable
MendeleevsarrangementoftheelementswerepresentedtotheRussian PhysicochemicalSocietybyProfessorMenschutkin becauseMendeleevwasill. ThetablewasfirstpublishedintheGermanchemistryperiodical,Zeitschrift The table was first published in the German chemistry periodical Zeitschrift fr Chemie,in1869.
TranslationoftheGermantextinZeitschrift fr Chemie,1869: Concerningtherelationbetweenthepropertiesandatomic weightsofelements.ByD.Mendeleev. Arrangingtheelementsinverticalcolumnswithincreasing atomicweights,sothatthehorizontalrowscontainsimilar g , elements,againinincreasingweightorder,thefollowingtable isobtainedfromwhichgeneralpredictionscanbedrawn. Elementsshowaperiodicityofpropertiesiflistedinorderof sizeofatomicweights.Elementswithsimilarpropertieseither haveatomicweightsthatareaboutthesame(Pt,Ir,Os)or have atomic weights that are about the same (Pt Ir Os) or increaseregularly(K,Rb,Cs).Thearrangementoftheelements correspondstotheirvalency,andsomewhataccordingtotheir chemicalproperties(eg Li,Be,B,C,N,O,F).Thecommonest elementshavesmallatomicweights. g 1. 2. 3. Thevalueoftheatomicweightdeterminesthecharacteroftheelement. Thereareunknownelementstodiscovereg.,elementssimilartoAlandSi withatomicweightsinrange65 75. with atomic weights in range 6575. Theatomicweightsofsomeelementsmaybechangedfromknowingthe propertiesofneighbouringelements.ThustheatomicweightofTemustbein range123126.Itcannotbe128. Sometypicalpropertiesofanelementcanbepredictedfromitsatomic S i l i f l b di d f i i weight.
4.
Mendeleevpublishedarevised,horizontaltablein1871
Mendeleevpredictedfourelements:ekaboron (Eb),ekaaluminium (El),ekamanganese (Em), andekasilicon (Es) Ekaboron andscandium Scandiumwasisolatedastheoxideinautumn,1879,byLarsFredrickNilson. PerTeodor CleverecognizedthecorrespondenceandnotifiedMendeleevlateinthatyear. Mendeleevhadpredictedanatomicmassof44forekaboron in1871whilescandiumhasan d l h d d d f f k b hl d h atomicmassof44.955910.
Ekamanganese andtechnetium TechnetiumwasisolatedbyCarloPerrierandEmilioSegr in1937,well Technetium was isolated by Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segr in 1937 well afterMendeleevslifetime,fromsamplesofmolybdenumthathadbeen bombardedwithdeuteriumnucleiinacyclotronbyErnestLawrence. Mendeleevhadpredictedanatomicmassof100forekamanganese in 1871andthemoststableisotopeoftechnetiumis Tc. 1871 and the most stable isotope of technetium is 98Tc
JuliusLotharMeyer(18301895)
In1864,Meyerproducedatableof28elements whichhelistedbytheirvalenceorcombining poweroftheelements(nowcalledoxidation f h l ( ll d id i number). The28elementswerealmostentirelymain groupelements. group elements Heincorporatedwhatwenowcalltransition metalsinanothertablein1868whichlistedthe elementsinincreasingweightorderwith elements in increasing weight order with elementswiththesamevalenceinagiven column. Meyer'stablewasnotpublisheduntil1870. y p
Also,in1870,Lothar Meyerplottedatomicvolumesagainst atomicweight. t i i ht Meyermeasuredthevolumeofoneatomicweight'sworthof eachelement(i.e.,onemole)andfiguredthatsincethenumber ofatomsineachamountwasthesame,thevolumesmeasured of atoms in each amount was the same, the volumes measured mustrepresenttherelativevolumesoftheindividualatoms.
LewisReeveGibbes(18101894)
ProfessorofChemistryattheCollegeofCharleston from1839to1892 Between1870and1874Gibbes,withoutknowing , g anyoftheworkbyNewlands,MendeleevandMeyer, workedoutthefirstversionofhis"SynopticalTable oftheChemicalElementsandinOctober,1875, discussedanimprovedformofitatameetingofthe di d i df f it t ti f th ElliottSocietyofCharleston
TheNobelGases
In1785,HenryCavendishreportedonhisanalysisofair(Philosophical Transactions 75,372(1785):
afterwhichonlyasmallbubbleofairremainedunabsorbed,whichcertainlywasnot morethan1/120ofthebulkofthephlogisticated airletupintothetube;sothatif thereisanypartofthephlogisticated airofouratmospherewhichdiffersfromthe rest,andcannotbereducedtonitrousacid,wemaysafelyconclude,thatitisnot d b d d i id f l l d h i i morethan1/120partofthewhole.
Cavendish
Rayleigh
OnOctober20,1868,EnglishastronomerNormanLockyer alsoobserveda On October 20 1868 English astronomer Norman Lockyer also observed a yellowlineinthesolarspectrum,whichheconcludedthatitwascaused byanelementintheSununknownonEarth.Lockyer andEnglishchemist EdwardFrankland namedtheelementwiththeGreekwordfortheSun, (helios). OnMarch26,1895SirWilliamRamsayisolatedheliumonEarthbytreatingthe On March 26 1895 Sir William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineralcleveite(avarietyofuraninite)withmineralacids.
Ramsay
HenryMoseley(18871915)
In1913,usingxray diffractionspectra, Moseleyshoweda Moseley showed a systematicrelation betweenwavelength andatomicnumber Resultedin arrangementofthe periodictableby periodic table by atomicnumber ratherthanatomic weight
HenryHubbardsperiodictable(1924)
GlennSeaborg(19121999)
Startingin1940,Seaborgwastheprincipalorco discovereroftenelements:plutonium(94), americium(95),curium(96),berkelium(97), californium(98),einsteinium(99),fermium(100), californium (98) einsteinium (99) fermium (100) mendelevium(101),nobelium(102)andelement 106,whichwaslaternamedseaborgium inhis honor.Healsodevelopedmorethan100atomic isotopes,andiscreditedwithimportant isotopes and is credited with important contributionstotheseparationoftheisotopeof uraniumusedintheatomicbombatHiroshima. Seaborgreconfiguredtheperiodictablebyplacing thelanthanide/actinideseriesatthebottomof th l th id / ti id i t th b tt f thetable. Seaborgalsoproposedextendingtheperiodic tabletoincludepredictedelementsuptoatomic number168.
GlennT.Seaborg(19121999) g( )
Extendingtheperiodictable
TheModernPeriodicTable
Groups1A8Aand1B8B Historicalnumbering Groups 1A 8A and 1B 8 B Historical numbering Groups118 IUPACnumbering
Somegroupshavenames g p
Nonmetals areontherightsideoftheheavyzigzag line ontheperiodictable(withtheexceptionofH). on the periodic table (with the exception of H)
PropertiesofMetal,Nonmetals, andMetalloids
MetalsversusNonmetals
Metalstendtoformcations(positiveions). Nonmetalstendtoformanions(negativeions).
Metalloids
Havecharacteristics ofbothmetalsand nonmetals. Forexample,silicon For example silicon looksshiny,butis brittleandfairly poorconductor. d t
Hydrogen
Some uses of Hydrogen: commercial fixation of nitrogen from the air in the Haber ammonia process hydrogenation of fats and oils methanol production, in hydrodealkylation, hydrocracking, hydrodealkylation hydrocracking and hydrodesulphurization rocket fuel welding production of h d hl i acid d i f hydrochloric id reduction of metallic ores for filling balloons (hydrogen gas much lighter than air; however it ignites easily) liquid H2 is important in cryogenics and in the study of superconductivity since it melting point i only j t i its lti i t is l just above absolute zero
Group1A:AlkaliMetals
Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs,Fr
Colored flames C l d fl react with water
Soft, metallic solids
Li
Na
K Li Na K
Group2A:AlkalineEarthMetals
Be,Mg,Ca,Sr,Ba,Ra
Burning B i magnesium
Group3A:B,Al,Ga,In,Tl
Sapphire: Al2O3 with Fe3+ or Ti3+ impurity gives blue whereas V3+ gives violet.
Group4A:C,Si,Ge,Sn,Pb
Quartz, SiO2
Ge
Group5A:N,P,As,Sb,Bi
Phosphorusfirst isolatedbyBrandt fromurine,1669
Whiteandredphosphorus
Group6A:O,S,Se,Te,Po
Sulfuricacid dripping from from snottite in caveinMexico
ElementalShasaring structure.
Group7A:Halogens
F,Cl,Br,I,At
Group8A:NobleGases
He,Ne,Ar,Kr,Xe,Rn
Xe forms three compounds: XeF2 XeF4 (below) XeF X F6 Kr forms only one stable compound: KrF2
ColorsofTransitionMetal Compounds
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc