26th September 2013 Assignment Writing Workshop 2

Reading & writing about ELT & Applied Linguistics

Nick Andon

Overview
1. Deciding what to read authoritative sources

2. Ways to read, reasons for reading

3. Making notes 4. From reading to writing 5. Referring to sources and avoiding plagiarism 6. Constructing a list of references

There are many differences between writing at Undergraduate level and writing on an MA. It may take a little time to tune in to the expectations of the tutors on this programme.

Key differences include the following: You are expected to read more widely in preparation for writing; You are expected to find for yourself relevant, authoritative sources; You are expected include important and relevant ideas from your sources; You are also expected to discuss these ideas to a greater extent and combine them with your own opinions; Sources must be fully acknowledged and properly referenced, and listed in the list of references TASK: What constitutes authoritative sources (handout)?

From reading to writing

Reading and writing are in some ways the most important tasks on this course. You spend far more time reading than listening to lectures. You are assessed on your writing. Not spending enough time on reading is a common reason why students struggle (Godfrey, 2009). You need to choose relevant and appropriate sources. Thinking about the purpose of your reading will help you to decide not only what to read but also how. Find out about the SQRRR (or SQ3R) method and consider whether this would benefit you.

SQRRR
SURVEY. Read the headings in the chapter or article, look at the abstract or the introduction, look quickly over any diagrams or charts. Think about what the chapter/article is about and think about what you already know about the subject. QUESTION*. Based on the headings, create questions. Turn statements in the headings into questions with What, Why, How, When, Who. Alternatively, think about the assignment or seminar you are reading for. What questions do you need to find answers to? Having questions provides a reason for reading.

 READ. As you read each section, you should have your question for that section in mind, and you should be actively searching for the answers. At the same time you are checking the things you thought you already knew about the subject. Perhaps take notes
RECITE. Once you have finished reading a section, put the book to one side and say (to yourself) the answer(s) to your questions. Try to do this in your own words and include examples. If you find you are not sure of the answer(s), look back over the section. At this point, you will probably write your notes.

REVIEW: When you have finished the complete chapter or article, look back over your notes, see what you can remember, test yourself. Revise after a time.

From reading to writing

You need to take good notes so that you can make use of ideas in your writing but also so you can reference properly and avoid plagiarism. You have to keep a good record of where the ideas in your notes came from so that: - you can find the ideas again in the original source to check; - you can paraphrase or summarise from notes; - you can reference them properly; - you can avoid plagiarism

Referring to sources
References have two parts
1. A brief note within the essay with authors surname and year of publication (Andon & Ogiermann, 2013) 2. An entry in the list of references that gives the reader complete details of the work you referred to earlier (e.g. What is Andon & Ogiermann, 2013?)

Andon, N. & Ogiermann, E. 2013. Politeness in school textbooks for teaching English in Germany and German in the UK. Language Learning Journal, 20(3), pp.196-210.

There are different styles or systems for referencing. Most tutors on this programme require you to use the HARVARD system. A guide can be found here: http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/referencing/harvard.htm

Referring to sources to avoid plagiarism

Plagiarism is defined as presentation of another persons thoughts or words as if they were your own. To avoid plagiarism you need to make it absolutely clear where the ideas you include in your coursework come from Why do you have to refer to sources? And why all the fuss about plagiarism? DISCUSS A reminder. You do need to go beyond reporting other peoples ideas in your coursework. Even if you acknowledge all your sources, you will not get good marks from simply reproducing other peoples work. Collusion is a form of plagiarism (and also proscribed).

When do you need to refer to sources?

Unless something is common knowledge or common sense you should always provide a reference to your source. The reader needs the answer to the questions how do you know this? and how authoritative and trustworthy are your sources? If there is no source, you are claiming that this is your own idea or that you have found this out by doing your own research. Be especially careful when making negative statements, for example until today there has been little research on this area What does this imply? Where several points in a paragraph draw on the same source or sources, make sure this is clear to the reader.

How do you refer to sources?

There are two linked aspects to this: 1. A parenthetical reference (a reference in brackets) at the point where you have included the ideas in your essay. 2. A reference list at the end of the essay where the reader of your work can find all the sources you have referred to. Within the body of the essay, you only need to provide enough information to allow the reader to locate the source (book, article, website etc) in the reference page. This is normally the authors SURNAME and the YEAR of publication e.g. (Andon, 2009) or (Andon, 2009, p.172). The normal place is at the end of the sentence or just after the quote/paraphrase/summary.

Integral and non integral citation

1. According to Lightbown and Spada, the errors language learners make cannot all be traced back to their L1 (2007). 2. The errors language learners make cannot all be traced back to their L1 (Lightbown & Spada, 2007). How are these different?

Different ways to report ideas

1. Quote directly word for word an extract from your source.

2. Paraphrase (or quote indirectly) from a source.

3. Summarise the ideas from one or more sources ALL THREE REQUIRE THAT YOU ACKNOWLEDGE THE SOURCE(S)

Direct quotation
The myth that nonstandard dialects of English are grammatically deficient is widespread (Pinker, 1994, p.17). Aitchison argues that even though intelligent animals seem capable of the rudimentary characteristics of language, they do not seem predisposed to cope with them (1989, p.46). Note that for direct quotations, page number must be given. This refers to the page you found the quote on.

Direct quotation (secondary source)

Communication is the sending and receiving of messages. It refers to any message, not just the highly structured symbolic messages of language (Crystal and Varley, 1993, in Bloomer et al, 2005, p.15). According to Noam Chomsky, the American linguist, Its about as likely that an ape will prove to have a language ability as that there is an island somewhere with a species of flightless birds waiting for human beings to teach them to fly (Chomsky, 1989, in Fromkin et al, 2007, p.359) Note that for direct quotations, page number must be given. This refers to the page you have read and not to the original. Only list in the references the book you have read.

Paraphrase
This is where you rewrite the ideas in your own words. Holmes points out that when an immigrant community considers language to be an important way to preserve their identity, they maintain that language for longer. She gives the example of Polish immigrant groups in many countries (1992). OR When an immigrant community considers language to be an important way to preserve their identity, the language is likely to be maintained (Holmes, 1998). Using your own words shows understanding and allows you to incorporate the ideas into your own argument. Page number not given. Different ways to reference. Paraphrase means more than making cosmetic changes.

Summarise
This is where you express then main points from a source in your own way. Two main reasons for summarising a source: to provide evidence and support for your own arguments To give an overview of different sources and authors who support a particular position. You still need to make a clear reference to sources of the ideas. You can combine 2 or more sources in your summary. Both need acknowledging

Quotation, paraphrase or summary

Godfrey (2009) gives the following reasons to use direct quotation: To give a definition To state a fact or idea that the author has expressed in a unique and powerful way To establish or summarise an authors position To provide an interesting and important start or end to your essay (or a section of your essay). She also lists the wrong reasons for quoting. Generally, though, you should use quotations sparingly, and long quotations even more so. There is a danger that you are allowing other peoples words to speak for you, and it is hard to give you credit (or marks) for doing this (2009, p.27). Where you do quote, your own comment is expected too.

Format of entries in the bibliography

1. Authors (or authors) surname(s), then initials. 2. Year of publication 3. What happens next depends on the type of source (a book, a paper in a book where the author of the paper and the author of the editor of the book are different, an article in a journal, a webpage. 4. In some cases you will need the title of the chapter in the book, or the article. Not capitalised. 5. Book title is in italics and every word (except words like and, to, the, a, is) are capitalised. Note that not all versions of Harvard use capitals.

Handling different types of sources

1. Harvard system uses a list of references rather than a bibliography. 2. We require a single list in alphabetical order, not separate lists of different types of source (such as books, articles, websites, radio broadcasts). 3. The format of an entry depends on what type of source you are referring to, e.g.:
Authored book Edited collection of papers Journal article Website Newspaper article

4. Task on handout on different types of sources

Including whole books on reference list

The required elements for a book reference are: Author, Initials., Year. Title of book. Edition. Place of publication (town or city, not just country): Publisher.
Aitchison, J. 2011. The Articulate Mammal. 5th ed. Abingdon: Routledge. Cogo, A. & M. Dewey.2012. Analysing English as a Lingua Franca. London: Continuum. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. & Hyams, N. 2014. An Introduction to Language. 10th ed. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage. Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. 2006. How Languages are Learned. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pinker, S. 1994. The Language Instinct. London: Penguin. Trask, R. 1999. Language the Basics. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Yule, G. 2010. The Study of Language. 4th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Some difficult cases

1. An edited collection. This is where several authors contribute chapters (papers) to a book, but the name of the editor (or editors) goes on the cover. In your essay, the name of the author you refer to is the one who wrote the chapter you are quoting, not the editor. You should be able to find this in the reference list under the same name. An example: Skehan, P. 2001. Comprehension and production strategies in language learning. In C. Candlin,& N. Mercer, eds. English Language Teaching in its Social Context. London: Routledge.

Chapters from edited collections

This is a book where different authors have contributed chapters, but the book cover gives the name of the (academic) editor(s). Reference the chapter author(s).
Andon, N. & U. Wingate. 2013. Motivation, authenticity and challenge in German textbooks for Key Stage 3. In J. Gray, ed. Critical Perspectives on Language Teaching Materials. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Ch.2 Skehan, P. 1996. Second language acquisition research and taskbased instruction. In J. Willis & D. Willis, eds. Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann, pp.9-22. Littlejohn, A. & Windeatt, S. 1989. Beyond language learning: perspectives on materials design. In Johnson, ed. Ch. 10. Low, G. 1989. Appropriate design: the internal organisation of course units. In Johnson, ed. Johnson, R. ed., 1989. The Second Language Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Including journal articles on reference list

The required elements for a journal article reference:
Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of Journal, Volume number (Issue/Part number), Page number(s).
Andon, N. & J. Eckerth. 2009. Chacun son gout? Task-based L2 pedagogy from the teachers point of view. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(3), pp.286-310. Cook, G. 2012. ELF and translation and interpreting: common ground, common interest, common cause. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca. 1(2), pp.241262. Meier, A. 1997. Teaching the universals of politeness. ELT Journal, 51(1), pp.21-29. Roberts, C. & M. Cooke. 2009. Authenticity in the adult ESOL classroom and beyond. TESOL Quarterly, 43(4), pp.620-642. Wingate, U. & C. Tribble. 2012. The best of both worlds? Towards an English for academic purposes/academic literacies writing pedagogy. Studies in Higher Education, 37(4), pp.481-495.

Some difficult cases (2)

2. Secondary sources. This is where you have found a quote from one author in another authors work. If you are not able to go back and find the original source, you need to refer to both the original writer and the author of the source where you found this. An example: Chomsky is clear that animals are not capable of learning language: Its about as likely that an ape will prove to have a language ability as that there is an island somewhere with a species of flightless birds waiting for human beings to teach them to fly (Chomsky 1989 in Fromkin et al 2007: 359). In this case, do not put Chomsky 1989 in the reference list you have not read the original so do not claim you have. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. and Hyams, N. 2007. An Introduction to Language (8th edition). Boston, MA: Thomson Wadworth.

Some difficult cases (3)

Websites. You need to include the URL http://abcde.fghij/klm.htm) AND the date you accessed the webpage (accessed 27/10/2013) Online sources can cause difficulties because it isnt always easy to find all the information you need author, date, publication details. You have to use some common sense. In the absence of the author, use the organisation whose website it is or a hortened version of the title. Authorship or Source, Year. Title of web document or web page. [type of medium] (date of update if available) Available at: include web site address/URL (Uniform Resource Locator) [Accessed date]. NHS Evidence, 2003. National Library of Guidelines. [online] Available at: <http://www.library.nhs.uk/guidelinesFinder> [Accessed 10 October 2009 ].

Checklist for avoiding plagiarism

Your paper should include a good balance of your own ideas and ideas taken from sources. Even if you acknowledge all sources properly, it is not appropriate to submit work that does not contain a substantial input from you. All direct quotations (i.e. using the exact words of the source where you found it) must be bracketed with inverted commas and properly acknowledged with author, date and page number. All paraphrased citations (i.e. where the ideas are rewritten in your own words) must be also acknowledged with a reference in your paper to the author and date where you found the ideas. Page numbers are not necessary for paraphrased citation. All sources that you have drawn on and referenced in your writing must be included in your bibliography. This includes sources you have quoted directly and sources of ideas that you have paraphrased.

Checklist for avoiding plagiarism (2)

Where you have referred to or quoted a primary source that you have found in a secondary source, both the primary source and the secondary source must be included in your reference, e.g. (Chomsky 1965 in Brown 1999: 67). The primary source should not be included in your bibliography unless you have actually read that primary source. Longer quotes may be indented to set them apart from the rest of your text, instead of using inverted commas. However, you should avoid overuse of long direct quotation and paraphrase instead. Where the source you read is actually a quote from another source, this must be acknowledged. It is often a good idea, however, to try to find the primary source and read the quotation in its original context. this is not always practical, however, and it depends on the importance of the quotation.

Checklist for avoiding plagiarism (3)

Where you have synthesised ideas from a number of sources, these must all be clearly acknowledged. Paraphrased quotes should be rewritten in your own words, and should not just be a copy of the original with minor cosmetic changes Diagrams, charts, tables should be clearly attributed to source. Your bibliography should include all the required information ... In the case of WebPages and other online sources both the URL and the date YOU accessed the page should be given. Quotations from lecturers handouts, PowerPoint and lectures should be properly acknowledged however these are not ideal sources. Research articles in electronic format should be listed as articles in the bibliography and not as websites

References

Bell, N. 2009. A Students Guide to the MA TESOL. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Godfrey, J. 2009. How to Use your Reading in your Essays. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan Neville, C. 2007. The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press/McGrawHill Education. Reinders, H, Moore, N. and Lewis, M. 2008. The International Student Handbook. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Wallace, M. & Wray, A. 2006. Critical Reading and Writing for Postgraduates. London: Sage Publications.

Using your reading in your writing

Wallace & Wray (2006) point out that academic study involves a balance between a students own ideas and the ideas they can read about in the academic literature on a particular subject. Neville (2007) lists 9 reasons why referencing is important: 1. Tracing the origin of ideas 2. Building a web of ideas 3. Finding your own voice 4. Validity of arguments 5. Spreading knowledge 6. An appreciation 7. Showing influences 8. Marking criteria 9. Avoiding plagiarism