Propositional Logic
Propositional Logic
Propositional
Logic
Chapter 7.4-7.5, 7.7
Adapted from slides by
Tim Finin and
Marie desJardins.
Propositional logic
...and
...or
...implies
..is equivalent
...not
[conjunction]
[disjunction]
[implication / conditional]
[biconditional]
[negation]
Examples of PL sentences
P means It is hot.
Q means It is humid.
R means It is raining.
(P Q) R
If it is hot and humid, then it is raining
QP
If it is humid, then it is hot
A better way:
Hot = It is hot
Humid = It is humid
Raining = It is raining
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A symbol is a sentence
If S is a sentence, then S is a sentence
If S is a sentence, then (S) is a sentence
If S and T are sentences, then (S T), (S T), (S T), and (S T) are
sentences
A sentence results from a finite number of applications of the above rules
Some terms
The meaning or semantics of a sentence determines its
interpretation.
Given the truth values of all symbols in a sentence, it can be
evaluated to determine its truth value (True or False).
A model for a KB is a possible world (assignment of truth
values to propositional symbols) in which each sentence in the
KB is True.
More terms
A valid sentence or tautology is a sentence that is True
under all interpretations, no matter what the world is
actually like or how the semantics are defined. Example:
Its raining or its not raining.
An inconsistent sentence or contradiction is a sentence
that is False under all interpretations. The world is never
like what it describes, as in Its raining and its not
raining.
P entails Q, written P |= Q, means that whenever P is True,
so is Q. In other words, all models of P are also models of
Q.
Truth tables
Truth tables II
The five logical connectives:
A complex sentence:
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Inference rules
Logical inference is used to create new sentences that
logically follow from a given set of predicate calculus
sentences (KB).
An inference rule is sound if every sentence X produced by
an inference rule operating on a KB logically follows from
the KB. (That is, the inference rule does not create any
contradictions)
An inference rule is complete if it is able to produce every
expression that logically follows from (is entailed by) the
KB. (Note the analogy to complete search algorithms.)
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PREMISE
CONCLUSION
Modus Ponens
And Introduction
And Elimination
Double Negation
Unit Resolution
Resolution
A, A B
A, B
AB
A
A B, B
A B, B C
B
AB
A
A
A
AC
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AB
OK?
True
True
True
True
False
False
False
True
True
False
False
True
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Soundness of the
resolution inference rule
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Proving things
A proof is a sequence of sentences, where each sentence is either a
premise or a sentence derived from earlier sentences in the proof
by one of the rules of inference.
The last sentence is the theorem (also called goal or query) that
we want to prove.
Example for the weather problem given above.
1 Humid
Premise
It is humid
2 HumidHot
Premise
If it is humid, it is hot
3 Hot
Modus Ponens(1,2)
It is hot
4 (HotHumid)Rain Premise
5 HotHumid
6 Rain
Modus Ponens(4,5)
It is raining
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Horn sentences
A Horn sentence or Horn clause has the form:
P1 P2 P3 ... Pn Q
or alternatively
(P Q) = (P Q)
P1 P2 P3 ... Pn Q
Derivation: KB |- Q
We can derive Q from KB if there is a proof consisting of a
sequence of valid inference steps starting from the premises in KB
and resulting in Q
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Completeness: If KB |= Q then KB |- Q
If Q is entailed by a set of sentences KB, then Q can be derived from
KB using the rules of inference.
Hence, inference produces all entailments, or all valid sentences can
be proved from the premises.
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Example
Consider the problem of representing the following
information:
Every person is mortal.
Confucius is a person.
Confucius is mortal.
How can these sentences be represented so that we can infer
the third sentence from the first two?
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Example II
In PL we have to create propositional symbols to stand for all or
part of each sentence. For example, we might have:
P = person; Q = mortal; R = Confucius
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Some rules:
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Proving W13
Apply MP with S11 and R1:
W11 W12 W21
QED
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Summary
The process of deriving new sentences from old one is called inference.
Sound inference processes derives true conclusions given true premises
Complete inference processes derive all true conclusions from a set of premises
Propositional logic commits only to the existence of facts that may or may
not be the case in the world being represented
It has a simple syntax and simple semantics. It suffices to illustrate the process
of inference
Propositional logic quickly becomes impractical, even for very small worlds
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