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    Vienna Corrine Q. Abucejo
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    Logic (from the Greek "logos", which has a variety of meanings including word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason or principle) is the study of reasoning, or the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration.

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    Logic (from the Greek "logos", which has a variety of meanings including word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason or principle) is the study of reasoning, or the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration.

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    35 views19 pages

    Lesson 6

    Uploaded by

    Vienna Corrine Q. Abucejo
    Logic (from the Greek "logos", which has a variety of meanings including word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason or principle) is the study of reasoning, or the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
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    of 19

    Immediate Inferences

    An inference is derived from the Latin word in-


    ferre, which means to bear or to produce. this
    etymology suggests that the mental process of
    inference involves the production of a new
    proposition directly related with the preceding
    propositions. The truth-value of this new emerging
    proposition implies the truth of the previous
    propositions.
    There are two general types of inference:
    1. Mediate inference
    2. Immediate inference
    Distinction between Mediate and
    Immediate Inference
    Mediate Immediate Inference
    Inference
    1. There are 1. There are only two
    three or more propositions.
    propositions.
    2. There is a There is no middle
    middle term. proposition.
    3. The third 2. The second is either
    proposition is the the opposite or
    conclusion. equivalent proposition.
    4. The conclusion 3. The second has the
    Requisites for Opposition:
    Logical opposition presupposes two
    propositions opposed to each other, and
    considers these three requisites:
    1. That both propositions have the same subject
    and predicate terms;
    2. That there is a change in either quantity, or
    quality, or both in the opposite proposition;
    3. That a truth-value of the opposite proposition
    is determined in relation to the assigned
    truth-value of the given proposition.
    Oppositional Relations
    The Aristotelian logic provides us with four
    oppositional relations:

    A E
    SUB-ALTERNATION

    CONTRARIETY

    SUB-ALTERNATION
    CONTRADICTION

    I SUB-CONTRARIETY O
    Four Oppositional Relations

    1. Contradiction- is the opposition between two


    propositions that differ both in quantity and
    quality.
    A and O
    E and I
    Ex. 1. All carabaos are national animals. A
    Some carabaos are not national animals. O
    2. No senators are mayors. E
    Some senators are mayors. I
    2. Contrariety is the opposition between two universal
    propositions that differ as to quality.
    A and E
    Ex. All mangoes are fruits. A
    No mangoes are fruits. E

    3. Sub-contrariety is the opposition between two


    particular propositions that differ as to quality.
    I and O

    Ex. Some cars are imported vehicles. I


    Some cars are not imported vehicles. O
    4. Sub-alternation is the opposition
    between two propositions having the same
    quality but different quantity.
    A and I E and O

    Ex. 1. All movie stars are well-paid professionals. A


    Some movie stars are well-paid professionals. I
    2. No winners are losers. E
    Some winners are not losers. O
    Rules of Logical Opposition
    1. The rules on Contradiction
    Rule 1. Contradictories cannot be true at the
    same time.
    Ex. A- All Catholics are Christians. True
    O- Some Catholics are not Christians. False
    E- No atheists are believers of God. True
    I- Some atheists are believers of God. False
    If A is true, O is false
    If O is true, A is false
    If E is true, I is false
    If I is true, E is false
    Rule 2. Contradictories cannot be
    false at the same time.
    Ex. A- All men are married persons. False
    O- Some men are not married persons. True
    E- No men are married persons. False
    I- Some men are married persons. True
    If A is false, O is true
    If O is false, A is true
    If E is false, I is true
    If I is false, E is true
    1. The Rules on Sub-alternation
    Rule 1a. the truth of the universal involves
    the truth of the particular.
    Ex. A- All voters are citizens. True
    I- Some voters are citizens. True
    E- No saints are sinners. True
    O- Some saints are not sinners. True
    If A is true, I must also be true
    If E is true, O must also be true
    Rule 1b. The truth of the particular does not
    necessarily involve the truth of the
    universal.
    Ex. I- Some men are honest beings. True
    A- All men are honest beings. doubtful
    O- Some men are not lawyers. True
    E- No men are lawyers. doubtful
    If I is true, A is undetermined/doubtful
    If O is true, E is undetermined/doubtful
    Rule 2a. The falsity of the particular
    involves the falsity of the universal.
    Ex. O- Some horses are not animals. False
    E- No horses are animals. False

    I- Some men angels. False


    A- All men are angels. False

    If I is false, A is false
    If O is false, E is false
    Rule 2b. The falsity of the universal does not
    necessarily involve the falsity of the
    particular.
    Ex. A- All birds are flying animals. False
    I- Some birds are flying animals. doubtful
    E-No men are educated persons. False
    O- Some men not educated persons. doubtful

    If A is false, I is undetermined/doubtful
    If E is false, O is undetermined/doubtful
    3. The Rules on Contrariety
    Rule 1. contraries cannot be true at the same
    time.
    Ex. A- All men are finite beings. True
    E- No men are finite beings. False

    E- No saints are sinners. True


    A- All saint are sinners. False
    If A is true, E is false
    If E is true, A is false
    Rule 2. contraries may be false at the same
    time.
    Ex. A- All men are immortal beings. false
    E- No men are immortal beings. doubtful

    E- No saints are sinners. False


    A- All saint are sinners. doubtful

    If A is false, E is doubtful
    If E is false, A is doubtful
    4. The Rules on Sub-contrariety
    Rule 1. sub-contraries cannot be
    false at the same time.

    Ex. I- Some cats are snakes. False


    O- Some cats are not snakes. True

    If I is false, O is true
    If O is false, I is true
    Rule 2. sub-contraries may be true at the
    same time.

    Ex. I- Some politicians are women. True


    O- Some politicians are not women. doubtful

    If I is true, O is doubtful
    If O is true, I is doubtful
    Application of all the
    rules:
    Given: (A) All students are persons.
    True
    Opposites Oppositional Trut
    Relations h-
    Valu
    es
    E No Students are Contraries Fals
    persons. e
    I Some Students are Sub- True
    persons. alternates
    Some Students are not Contradicto Fals
    Given: (E) No trees are plants. False

    Opposites Oppositional Trut


    Relations h-
    Valu
    es
    A All trees are plants. Contraries Doubt
    ful

    I Some trees are plants. Contradicto True


    ries
    Doubt
    O Some trees are not Sub-
    ful
    plants. alternates

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