Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates
2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Carbohydrates are broadly defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes
or ketones and their derivatives or as substances that yields
one of these compounds
Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Functional groups present include hydroxyl groups
Carbohydrates are the most abundant of all the organic
compounds in nature.

In plants, energy from the Sun is used to convert carbon
dioxide and water into
the carbohydrate glucose.
Many of the glucose molecules are made into long-chain
polymers of starch
that store energy.
About 65% of the foods in our diet consist of carbohydrates.
Each day we utilize carbohydrates in foods such as bread,
pasta, potatoes, and rice.
Other carbohydrates called disaccharides include sucrose
(table sugar) and lactose in milk.
During digestion and cellular metabolism, carbohydrates
are converted into glucose, which is oxidized further in our
cells to provide our bodies with energy and to
provide the cells with carbon atoms for building molecules
of protein, lipids, andnucleic acids.
In plants, a polymer of glucose called cellulose builds the
structural framework.
Cellulose has other important uses, too.
The wood in our furniture, the pages in your notebook, and
the cotton in our clothing are made of cellulose.

What Are Carbohydrates?
Produced by plants during photosynthesis
After eating plant foods, humans convert the carbohydrates
into glucose
Glucose
Most abundant carbohydrate
Preferred source of energy for the blood, brain, and
nervous system
Carbohydrate-rich plant foods make up the foundation of
diets all over the world

Classification of Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates
Monosaccharide
Disaccharide
Perceived as sweeter than complex carbohydrates
- Mixes with saliva and reacts with taste buds
Oligosaccharides
Complex carbohydrates
Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides- simplest form of
carbohydrates.
Three nutritionally important monosaccharides
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose

Monosaccharides
Glucose (grape sugar) a white crystalline substance easily
soluble in water with a sweet taste.
Blood glucose and blood sugar in the body
Most abundant monosaccharide in the body
- Is the preferred and main source of energy for the
brain and red blood cells
Part of every disaccharide
Only monosaccharide in starches

Monosaccharides
Fructose
Sweetest of natural sugars
Found abundantly in fruits
Part of high-fructose corn syrup (40-90%)
Galactose
Commonly occurs as part of dissaccharide lactose

The Structural Differences between Glucose,
Galactose, and Fructose
Figure 4.2
Disaccharides complex sugars with two
monosaccharides.
Three Disaccharides
Sucrose-otherwise known as invert sugar.
- Most common
Lactose- also known as milk sugar and contains glucose
and galactose.
Maltose- contains two molecules of glucose joined by an
alpha bond.
- Least common
- Formed from digestion of starches

Monosaccharides Link to Form Disaccharides
Figure 4.3
Tetrasaccharides
They contain four monosaccharides

and like trisaccharides they are
of no nutritional significance,
e.g., stachyose and scorodose.
Polysaccharides
Starch
Plants store glucose in chains of starch
- Amylose
- Straight chain
- More resistant to digestion
- Resistant starch
May improve health of digestive tract
May improve glucose tolerance
May stimulate growth of beneficial intestinal
bacteria
- Amylopectin
- Branched chains
- Easier to digest
Polysaccharides
Fiber
Nondigestible polysaccharides
Provides no energy
Classification
- Soluble
- Pectins, beta-glucan, some gums, mucilage
- Easily fermented by intestinal bacteria
Carbon dioxide, methane, some fatty acids
- Insoluble
- Cellulose, lignin, some hemicelluloses
- Not easily fermented
Fiber Health Benefits
Soluble fibers
Slow gastric emptying and may delay absorption of some
nutrients
- Helps reduce serum cholesterol
- Improve appetite control
- Normalize blood glucose levels
May help protect against colon cancer
Insoluble fibers
Relieves constipation
Most plant foods contain both soluble and insoluble fibers
Polysaccharides
Glycogen
Storage form of glucose in animals
Long, branched chains of glucose
Stored in liver and muscle
Liver glycogen response to blood glucose (BG) levels
BG glycogen breakdown BG
Muscle glycogen can be broken down for energy for the

muscle
The Comparison of Starch and Glycogen Molecules
Figure 4.4
Oligosaccharides
Similar in length to simple carbohydrates
Similar in makeup to polysaccharides
Humans lack the enzymes necessary to digest them
Intestinal microflora digest and ferment them
Cause bloating, discomfort, and flatulence
Food sources
Legumes, beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli

The Structure of an Oligosaccharide
Figure 4.7
Quick Review
Complex carbohydrates
Polysaccharides: starch, fiber, glycogen
Fiber
- Soluble fermented by intestinal bacteria; moves
slowly
- Insoluble moves quickly through and reduces
constipation
- Functional added to foods
Oligosaccharides
Contain three to ten units
Part of cellulose in cell walls
Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
Disaccharides and starches are digested to
monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are easily absorbed
Fiber passes through the GI tract undigested

Figure 4.8a
Figure 4.8b
Figure 4.8c
Figure 4.8d
Absorption of Carbohydrates
Once digested to monosaccharides
Absorbed through the intestinal cell mucosa
Transported to the liver via the portal vein
Metabolic needs direct fate of the monosaccharides
- Galactose and fructose
Used by the liver for energy
Converted to glucose
- Glucose
Used for energy
Converted to glycogen through glycogenesis
Converted to glycerol and fatty acids for storage in
addipocytes
Glucose Is Stored in the Liver and Muscle
Cells as Glycogen
Figure 4.9
Quick Review
Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth
Most carbohydrate digestion takes place in the small
intestine
Carbohydrates are broken down to monosaccharides for
absorption
Monosaccharides are converted to glucose in the liver and
Used as energy
Stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle cells
Stored as glycerol and fatty acids in the adipocytes
Fiber travels to the colon undigested and most is eliminated
from the body

Functions of Carbohydrate
Provide energy
4 kilocalories per gram
Maintain blood glucose
Carbohydrate intake
Glycogenolysis > 4 hours after a meal
Spare protein
Prevents the need for glyconogenesis
Prevents ketosis

Special Functions of Carbs. in the liver- have protective
and detoxifying action in the liver.
Carbs. and the Heart- used as the most efficient fuel for
muscular exercise.
Carbohydrates and the Central Nervous System-
continuously supply of carbs. is essential for nervous
tissues to function normally.
Carbohydrates and Protein Sparing Effect- If
carbohydrates supply is enough in the diet, protein in
spared for important functions of it.

Carbohydrates and Non-essential Amino Acids
carboskeleton of carbohydrates is used by the body for the
synthesis of non-essential amino acids.
Carbohydrates and Fats essential for the oxidation of fat.
Carbohydrates and Diet- provides flavor and variety to the
diet.

Dietary Fiber
Benefits
Helps lower risk of
- Bowel irregularity
- Obesity
- Heart disease
- Cancer
- Diabetes mellitus

Dietary Fiber
Chronic constipation can
lead to diverticulosis and
diverticulitis
Prevention of constipation
and diverticulosis
Insoluble fiber helps
reduce transit time of
foods in the colon
Soluble fiber helps make
stool easier to pass by
increasing bulk and
softening texture
2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.12

Dietary Fiber
Prevention of heart disease and diabetes
Viscous, soluble fiber helps lower elevated blood
cholesterol levels
- Interferes with reabsorbtion of bile acid
2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.13

Dietary Fiber
Slow moving, viscous, soluble fiber may reduce the rate
which fat and carbohydrate are absorbed
- Decreasing level of fat in blood and improving insulin
sensitivity, decrease risk of heart disease
Insoluble fiber has been shown to promote heart health
Viscous soluble fiber helps slow digestion and
absorption helping control blood glucose levels

Dietary Fiber
Fiber helps reduce the incidence of several cancers
Decreases the amount of time cancer-promoting
substances spend in contact with the intestinal lining
Encourages the growth of colon-friendly bacteria
Reduces acid in the colon
Helps prevent obesity
Increase satiety
Reduce food intake
Caution: Increase dietary fiber and fluid intake

gradually
Quick Review
Foods that contain high fiber or are eaten with protein and
fat generally have a lower GI.
High-fiber diet health benefits include reduced risk of
Constipation
Diverticulosis
Heart disease
Obesity
Diabetes Mellitus
Cancer

Importance of Whole Grains
Carbohydrate Sources
Best choices should include nutrient-dense, low-saturated
fat foods, simple carbohydrates, fiber, complex
carbohydrates

Food Sources of Carbohydrates
Figure 4.14
Food Sources of Fiber
Figure 4.15
Quick Review
Best sources of carbohydrates are
Fresh fruits and vegetables Legumes
Low-fat dairy products
Whole grains
Excellent sources of fiber are
Whole grains Legumes
Nuts
Fruits
Seeds
Vegetables
Packaged foods can be good sources of starch and fiber
Read label carefully
Avoid too much sugar, fat, and kilocalories

Carbohydrates

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2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

They contain four monosaccharides

Muscle glycogen can be broken down for energy for the

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.12

2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.13

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Caution: Increase dietary fiber and fluid intake

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

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