Unit - 4: Noise in Analog Communication Systems
Unit - 4: Noise in Analog Communication Systems
NOISE IN ANALOG
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Noise in electrical terms may be defined as any unwanted
introduction of energy tending to interfere with the proper
reception and reproduction of transmitted signals.
Noise is mainly of concern in receiving system, where it sets a
lower limit on the size of signal that can be usefully received. Even
when precautions are taken to eliminate noise from faulty
connections or that arising from external sources, it is found that
certain fundamental sources of noise are present within electronic
equipment that limit the receivers sensitivity.
Classification of noise
NOISE
INDUSTRIAL NOISE
CAUSE :
The free electrons within an electrical conductor possess kinetic
energy as a result of heat exchange between the conductor and its
surroundings.
Due to this kinetic energy the electrons are in motion, this motion is
randomized through collisions with imperfections in the structure of
the conductor. This process occurs in all real conductors and gives
rise to conductors resistance.
As a result, the electron density throughout the conductor varies
randomly, giving rise to randomly varying voltage across the ends of
conductor. Such voltage can be observed as flickering on a very
sensitive voltmeter.
NOTE: Thermal Noise is not a free source of energy. To abstract the noise power, the
resistance R is to be connected to a resistive load, and in thermal equilibrium the load
will supply as much energy to R as it receives.
R
V RL
En
Resisters in Parallel
With resistors in parallel it is best to work in terms of conductance.
Let Gpar represent the parallel combination where Gpar = G1 + G2 + G3 +
; then
In2 = 4Gpar kTBn
= 4( G1 + G2 + G3 + )kTBn
= I 2 + I 2 + I 3 + .
n1 n2 n3
REACTANCE
Reactances do not generate thermal noise. This
follows from the fact that reactances cannot
Dissipate power.
Consider an inductive or capacitive reactance
connected in parallel with a resistor R.
In thermal equilibrium, equal amounts of power must be exchanged;
that is, P1 = P2 . But since the reactance cannot dissipate power, the
power P2 must be zero, and hence P1 must also bezero.
Shot Noise
Shot noise is random fluctuation that accompanies any direct current
crossing potential barrier. The effect occurs because the carriers
(electrons and holes in semiconductors) do not cross the barrier
simultaneously but rather with random distribution in the timing of
each carrier, which gives rise to random component of current
superimpose on the steady current.
In case of bipolar junction transistors , the bias current crossing the
forward biased emitter base junction carries the shot noise.
When amplified, this noise sounds as though a shower of lead shots
were falling on a metal sheet. Hence the name shot noise.
The cause of flicker noise are not well understood and is recognizable
by its frequency dependence. Flicker noise becomes significant at
frequency lower than about 100 Hz. Flicker noise can be reduced
significantly by using wire-wound or metallic film resistors rather than
the more common carbon composition type.
In semiconductors, flicker noise arises from fluctuations in the carrier
densities (holes and electrons), which in turn give rise to fluctuations in
the conductivity of the material. I.e the noise voltage will be developed
whenever direct current flows through the semiconductor, and the
mean square voltage will be proportional to the square of the direct
current.
Typical popcorn noise, showing discrete levels of channel current modulation due to the trapping and
release of a single carrier, for three different bias conditions
SPECTRAL DENSITY
Spectral
density
4RkT Gv 2
kT Gp
Sp (f)
f
Sp(f1)
f1 f2 f3 f
at frequency f1 the noise power for small band width f about
f1 is Pn1=Sp(f1).f Here f assume flat about f1
4RkT Vn 2
|H(f)|
Frequency
(Linear scale)
Total mean square output voltage is given by
Vn2=4RkT.|H(f)|2f for f=0 to
=4RkTx(area under |H(f)|2) curve
R
C C V2
R n
4RkT
transfer function of RC network |H(f)|=1/[1+(CR)]
Equivalence noise bandwidth of the RC network
is Bn=|H(f)|2df=1/4RC; f=0 to
Noise bandwidth
RF bandwidth
(c)
(a)Amplifier frequency response curve (b) curve of (a) using linear scales (c)
noise bandwidth Of a double sideband receiver
Signal to noise ratio
If input signal power=Ps to first section as signal passes along the link
power output at
each repeater is Ps since LG=1 for each link but noise power
are additive and the total noise at the output of mth link is
Pn=Pn1+Pn2++Pnm
Noise factor is the ratio of available S/N ratio at the input to the
available S/N ratio at the output .
Example
The noise figure of an amplifier is 7dB. Calculate the output signal
to noise ratio when the input signal to noise ratio is 35 dB.
Sol . From the definition of noise factor ,
(S/N)o = (S/N)in (F) dB
= (35 7) dB
= 28 db
Amplifier Input Noise in terms of F
Noiseless
amplifier
Pni = Pno / G
(F-1)kTo Bn
Gain, G Pno = FGkTo Bn
kT
o Bn
Noise Factor = FkTo Bn
F
Example
An amplifier has a noise figure of 13dB. Calculate
equivalent amplifier input noise for a bandwidth of 1
MHz.
Sol. 13 dB is a power ratio of approximately 20 : 1. hence
Pna = (20 1)X 4 X 10-21 X 106
= 1.44pW.
Noise figure must be converted to a power ratio F to be
used in the calculation.
Noise factor of amplifiers in cascade
consider first two amplifiers in cascade . The problem is to
determine the overall noise factor F in terms of individual noise
factors and available power gains .
the available noise power at the output of the amplifier 1 is
Pno1 = F1 G1 kTo Bn and this available to amplifier 2.
Amplifier 2 has noise (F2 1)kTo Bn of its own at its input, hence
total available noise power at the input of amplifier 2 is
Pni2 = F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 -1)kTo Bn
Now since the noise of amplifier 2 is represented by its equivalent
input source , the amplifier itself can be regarded as being noiseless
and of available power gain G2 , so the available noise output of
amplifier 2 is
Pno2 = G2 Pni2
= G2 ( F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 1)kTo Bn ) (1)
The overall available power of the two amplifiers in cascade is
G = G1 G2 and let overall noise factor be F ; then output noise power
can also be expressed as
Pno = FGkToBn (2)
equating the two equations for output noise (1) and (2)
F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 -1)kTo Bn = FGkToBn
F1 G1 + (F2 -1) = FG
F = F1 G1 / G + (F2 1)/G
where G = G1 G2
F = F1 + ( F2 1)/ G1
This equation shows the importance of high gain , low
noise amplifier as the first stage of a cascaded system. By
making G1 large, the noise contribution of the second
stage can be made negligible, and F1 must also be small so
that the noise contribution of the first amplifier is low.
The argument is easily extended for additional amplifiers
to give
2
Introduction:
4
Receiver Model
t ratio (SNR) is defined as:
Output signal-to-noise O
55
Receiver Model
This ratio may be viewed as the signal-to-noise ratio that
results from baseband (direct) transmission of the message
signal m(t) without modulation, as demonstrated in the
following figure:
The message power at the low-pass filter input is adjusted to be the same as
the average power of the modulated signal
The low-pass filter passes the message signal and rejects out-of-band noise.
56
Receiver Model
Figure of merit
For the purpose of comparing different continuous-wave (CW) modulation
systems, we normalize the receiver performance by dividing the output
signal-to-noise ratio by the channel signal-to-noise ratio.
The higher the value of the figure of merit, the better will the noise
performance of the receiver be.
The figure of merit may equal one, be less than one, or be greater than
one, depending on the type of modulation used.
SNR O
Figure of merit=
SNR C
Noise in DSB--SC Receiver
The model of a DSB-SC receiver using a coherent
detector
Figure 6.4
S
Therefore, the average powerX of the DSB-SC modulated signal
component s(t) is given by: C 2 Ac 2 P
2
The average power of the noise in the message BW is WN0
The channel signal-to-noise ratio of the DSB-SC
modulation C 2 Ac2
system SNR C P 2WN
,DSB 0
is:
Noise in DSB--SC Receiver
Next, we wish to determine the output signal-to-noise ratio.
Using the narrowband representation of the filtered noise n(t), the
total signal at the coherent detector input may be expressed as:
x t s t n t
CAc cos 2 fct m t nI t cos 2 fct nQ t sin 2 fct
The output of the product-modulator component of the coherent
detector is:
t x t cos 2 f c t
cos(+) + cos() = 2cos()cos ()
1 CA m t 1 n t sin(+) + sin() = 2sin()cos()
c
2 2
CA m t n t cos 4 f t 1 A n
1
t sin 4 f t
I
c
c
2
c Q c
2 I
y t CA m t n t
1 1
c
2 2
I
Noise in DSB--SC Receiver
Equation indicates the following:
The message signal m(t) and in-phase noise component nI(t) of the filtered noise
n(t) appear additively at the receiver output.
The quadrature component nQ(t) of the noise n(t) is completely rejected by the
coherent detector.
We note that these two results are independent of the input signal- to-noise ratio.
In the case of DSB-SC modulation, the band-pass filter in Figure 6.4 has a band-
width BT equal to 2W in order to accommodate the upper and lower sidebands of
the modulated signal s(t). Therefore, the average power of the filtered noise n(t) is
2WN0.
From Property 5 of Sect 5.11, the average power of the (low-pass) nI(t) is the same
as that of the (band-pass) filtered noise n(t).
Noise in DSB--SC Receiver
The output signal-noise ratio for DSB-
2 2
SC C Ac P
SNR O,DSB-SC 4
WN0 2
2 2
C Ac P
2WN
0
We obtain the figure of
merit SNR O 1
SNR C DSB-
SC
Effect of Noise on SSB AM
SSB modulated signal :
u(t ) Ac m(t ) cos(2 f ct ) Ac m
(t ) sin( 2 f ct )
Input to the demodulator
r (t ) Ac m(t ) cos( 2 f ct ) Ac m (t ) sin( 2 f ct ) n(t )
Ac m(t ) cos( 2 f ct ) Ac m (t ) sin( 2 f ct ) nc (t ) cos2 f ct ns (t ) sin 2 f ct
Ac m(t ) nc (t )cos( 2 f ct ) Ac m (t ) ns (t )sin 2 f ct
65
Effect of Noise on SSB AM
Parallel to our discussion of2 DSB, we have
Ac
Po PM
4
1 1 S P0 Ac2 PM
Pn0 Pnc Pn
4 4 N 0 Pn0 WN 0
N
Pn S n( f )df 0 2W WN 0
2
PR PU Ac2 PM
S PR S
0 SS B
N N 0W N b
The signal-to-noise ratio in an SSB system is equivalent to that of a
DSB system.
66
Noise in AM Receivers
A full AM signal is given
by
s t Ac 1 kam t
cos2fct
where Accos(2fct) is the carrier wave, m(t) is the message
signal and bandwidth is W, ka is a constant that determines the
percentage modulation.
We would like to perform noise analysis for an AM
system using an envelope detector.
Yu-sing Lin () 67
Noise in AM Receivers
We perform the noise analysis of the AM receiver by first
determining the channel signal-to-noise ratio, and then the
output signal-to-noise ratio.
We can easily obtain average power of the AM signal
1
The average power of noise in the message bandwdith is WN0
2 DSB-SC system)
(the same as the
The channel signal-to-noise ratio for AM is therefore:
A a P
2
2 1 k
SNR C,AM
c
2WN 0
68
Noise in AM Receivers
The filtered signal x(t) applied to the envelope detector in the
receiver is given by:
x t s t n t
Ac Ac kam t n1 t cos 2fct nQ t sin 2fct
6.13
y t envelope of x t
12
Ac Ac ka m t nI t n
2 2
SNR O 2
ka SNR SNRO
1 1
SNR C AM using
Envelope
1Oka2
SNR C DSB- SNR SSB
Detector PP SC
C
The figure of merit of a DSB-SC receiver or that of an SSB
receiver using coherent detection is always unity.
The corresponding figure of merit of an AM receiver using
envelope detection is always less than unity.
In other words, the noise performance of an AM receiver is
always inferior to that a DSB-SC receiver. This is due to
the wastage of transmitter power, which results from
transmitting the carrier as a component of AM wave.
Noise in AM Receivers
Single-Tone Modulation
Consider a sinusoidal wave of frequency fm and amplitude Am
as the modulating wave, as shown by
m(t) = Amcos(2fmt)
The corresponding AM wave is
The AWGN nw(t) is added to u(t), and the result is passed through a
noise-limiting filter whose role is to remove the out-of-band noise.
The bandwidth of this filter is equal to that of the modulated signal
Therefore, it passes the modulated signal without distortion.
However, it eliminates the out-of-band noise.
Hence, the noise output of the filter is a filtered noise denoted by n(t).
76
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
The output of this filter is
r (t ) u(t ) n(t ) u(t ) nc (t ) cos2 f ct ns (t ) sin 2 f ct
n (t )
n(t ) nc2 (t ) ns2 (t ) cos 2f ct arctan s Vn (t ) cos2f ct n (t )
where Vn(t) and n(t) represent nc (t )
the envelope and the phase of the
bandpass noise process, respectively.
77
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
Assume that the signal is much larger than the noise, that is,
PVn (t ) Ac 1
The phasor diagram of signal and noise are shown in below.
From this figure, it is obvious that we can write
Vn (t ) sin n (t ) (t )
r (t ) Ac Vn (t ) cos n (t ) (t ) cos 2f c t (t ) arctan
Ac Vn (t ) cos n (t ) (t )
Ac Vn (t ) cos n (t ) (t ) cos 2f c t (t ) sin n (t ) (t )
Vn (t )
Ac
78
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
k p m(t ), PM
(t )
Noting that
2k
t
f m( ) d ,
FM
where we define
sin n (t ) (t )
Vn (t )
Yn (t ) def
Ac
79
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
sin n (t ) (t )
Vn (t )
k m (t ) PM k p m(t ) Yn (t ) PM
p
Ac
y (t ) 1 d
sin n (t ) (t ) FM
1 d Vn (t ) k m(t ) Yn (t ) FM
k f m(t )
f
2 dt
2 dt Ac
(Eq. 6.2.7)
The first term in above equation is the desired signal component.
The second term is the noise component.
The noise component is inversely proportional to the signal
amplitude Ac.
Hence, the higher the signal level, the lower the noise level.
This is in agreement with the intuitive reasoning presented at the
beginning of this section and based on Fig. 6.1.
This is not the case with amplitude modulation.
In AM systems, the noise component is independent of the signal
component, and a scaling of the signal power does not affect the
received noise power.
80
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
The properties of the noise component
sin n (t ) (t ) Vn (t ) sin n (t ) cos (t ) Vn (t ) cos n (t ) sin (t )
Vn (t ) 1
Yn (t )
Ac Ac
1
ns (t ) cos (t ) nc (t ) sin (t )
Ac
when we compare variations in nc(t) and ns(t), we can assume that
(t) is almost constant, i.e., (t) .
Yn (t ) ns (t ) cos nc (t ) sin
1
Ac
cos sin
ns (t ) nc (t )
Ac Ac
ans (t ) bnc (t ), where a = cos/Ac and b = -sin /Ac
81
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
By using the result of Exercise 5.3.3, we have
SYn ( f ) a b S nc ( f )
2 2
S nc ( f )
Ac2
0 otherwise
Note that the bandwidth of the filtered noise extends from fc Bc/2 to
fc + Bc/2 . Hence, the spectrum of nc(t) extends from Bc/2 to +Bc/2.
Therefore
N20 | f | Bc
(Eq. 6.2.13)
SYn ( f ) Ac 2
0 otherwise
82
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
This equation provides an expression for the power spectral
density of the filtered noise at the front end of the receiver.
After demodulation, another filtering is applied; this reduces
the noise bandwidth to W, which is the bandwidth of the
message signal.
Note that in the case of FM modulation, as seen in (Eq. 6.2.7),
the process Yn(t) is differentiated and scaled by 1/2.
The PSD of the process (1/2) (dYn(t)/dt) is given by
(see Eq. 5.2.17)
4 2 f 2 N0
f 2
| f | (Eq.
Bc
6.2.14)
S ( f ) f 2
SYn ( f ) Ac
2 2
4 2 Y
0
n
otherwise
83
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
In PM, the demodulated-noise PSD is given by (Eq. 6.2.13)
In FM, it is given by (Eq. 6.2.14).
In both cases, Bc/2 must be replaced by W after Lowpass filter.
Hence, for |f|<W
Ac2
N0
PM
S n0 ( f ) N 0 2
Ac2 f FM
W N 0 df
W Ac2
2W N0
W Ac2 PM
Pn0 (Eq. 6.2.16)
S n0 ( f )df W 2 N 0W 3
W Ac2 df 3 Ac2
W N0 2 FM
f
85
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
(Eq. 6.2.7) is used to determine the output SNR2in angle modulation.
k p PM PM
First, we have the output signal power PS 2
O
k f PM FM
Then the SNR, which is defined as k p2 Ac2 PM
S PSO PM
S 2 NW
def 2 2 0
N O PnO N O 3k f Ac PM
FM
2
2W N 0W
PR PM
p k p max m(t ) PM
max m(t ) N 0W
PM
S
k f max m(t )
f
2
FM N O f PM
3PR max m(t ) N W
W FM
0
86
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
S PM
Denote
N b N 0W
Observations
In both PM and FM, the output SNR is proportional to 2.
Therefore, increasing increases the output SNR.
Increasing increase the bandwidth (from Carsons rule).
So angle modulation provides a way to trade off
bandwidth for transmitted power.
89
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
Although we can increase the output SNR by increasing ,
having a large means having a large Bc (by Carson's rule).
Having a large Bc means having a large noise power at the
input of the demodulator. This means that the approximation
P(Vn(t) << Ac) 1 will no longer apply and that the preceding
analysis will not hold.
In fact, if we increase such that the preceding
approximation does not hold, a phenomenon known as the
threshold effect will occur and the signal will be lost in the
noise.
This means that although increasing the modulation index, ,
up to a certain value improves the performance of the
system, this cannot continue indefinitely.
After a certain point, increasing will be harmful and
deteriorates the performance of the system.
90
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
A comparison of the preceding result with the SNR in AM
shows that, in both cases (AM and angle modulation),
increasing the transmitter power (and consequently the
received power) will increase the output SNR
But the mechanisms are totally different. In AM, any
increase in the received power directly increases the signal
power at the output of the demodulator.
This is basically because the message is in the amplitude of
the transmitted signal and an increase in the transmitted
power directly affects the demodulated signal power.
However, in angle modulation, the message is in the phase
of the modulated signal and increasing the transmitter
power does not increase the demodulated message power.
In angle modulation, the output SNR is increased by a
decrease in the received noise power, as seen from
Equation (6.2.16) and Fig. 6.1.
91
Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation
In FM, the effect of noise is higher at higher frequencies.
This means that signal components at higher frequencies
will suffer more from noise than signal components at
lower frequencies.
To compensate for this effect, preemphasis and
deemphasis filtering are used.
92