Foundation Engineering
Foundation Engineering
ENGINEERING
(Autonomous) Dundigal,
Hyderabad - 500 043
Unit –II:
SLOPE STABILITY: Infinite and finite earth slopes- types of failures- factor
of safety of infinite slopes- stability analysis by Swedish arc method,
standard method of slices, Bishop’s Simplified method- Taylor’s Stability
Number- Stability of slopes of earth dams under different conditions.
Unit –III:
EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES: Rankine’s theory of earth pressure-
earth pressures in layered soils- Coulomb’s earth pressure theory-
Culmann’s graphical method.
SYLLABUS:
RETAININGWALLS:Types of retaining walls- stability of retaining walls
against overturning,sliding,bearing capacity and drainage from backfill.
Unit –IV:
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS-Strength Criteria- Types,choice of
foundation,Location of depth-,Safe Bearing Capacity,Terzaghi,Meyerhof,
Skempton and IS Methods.
ENCI 579 16
Soils Investigation
Transportation agents
◦ Rivers and streams
gravel sand silt deposited as a fn (water velocity)
◦ Lakes
clays and silts settling out
◦ Wind
sand dunes and loess deposits (silt particles)
◦ Glaciers
movement in NorthAmerica eroded,transported,and
deposited soils in many types of formations
ENCI 579 17
Soils Investigation
Glacier soil deposits
◦ tills (mixture of gravel sand silt clay)
material that has been shoved forward or picked up
from an advancing glacier
this material is deposited when a glacier stops or
retreats as it melts
◦ fluvial deposits associated with glaciers
clays and varved clays from glacier lakes
marine clays deposited from salt water
sorted gravel,sand and silt from glacier streams
ENCI 579 18
Soils Investigation
ENCI 579 19
4'�. "4"".r-< T,:, •9' :· ., • ..o �<- r,.•"·• ... 'e :,,.. '-'V, ..,.,:, . .,. ··• • ..............
ENCI 579 20
Soils Investigation
Field InvestigationTechniques
◦ determine bearing capacity for foundations
◦ determine water resources
◦ find aggregate deposits (road construction)
◦ estimate infiltration and seepage rates
◦ assess land use capabilities
Information required
◦ depth, thickness, properties of each soil layer
◦ location of groundwater table
◦ depth to bedrock
ENCI 579 21
Soils Investigation-Drill Rig
(a) (b)
ENCI 579 22
Soils Investigation-Drill Rig
c) split-spoon sampler
attached to drill rods have
been lowered to the
bottom of the test hole
through the hollow stem
of this auger and chalk
marks have been placed
on the rod at 15 cm (6 in)
intervals
ENCI 579 23
Soils Investigation-Drill Rig
ENCI 579 24
Soils Investigation
Preliminary Investigation
◦ geological and agricultural maps
types of soils or geological formations
◦ aerial photographs
drainage patterns and color and tone can indicate
what type of soil
◦ area reconnaissance
other structures performance in the area
wells can indicate groundwater levels
ENCI 579 25
Soils Investigation
Subsurface Investigation
◦ Geophysical methods
seismic or electrical-variations in the speed of sound
waves or electrical resistivity of soil formations
◦ Test pits or trenches
shallow depths only
◦ HandAugers
shallow depths only
◦ Boring test holes and sampling with drill rigs
principal method for detailed soil investigations
ENCI 579 26
Soils Investigation
BoringTest Holes
◦ continuous flight auger
◦ samples are taken by sampling tools inserted in
the test hole when the auger is removed at
certain depths
◦ if the hole does not stay open,a pipe can be
driven into the ground and the hole augured
from inside the pipe or a hollow stem auger is
used through which samples are taken
ENCI 579 27
Soils Investigation
Undisturbed Samples
◦ soil structure of the sample is as close as possible to the
structure of the soil in the field
◦ Thin-wall sampler (ShelbyTube) clays/silts
sample taken by pushing the tube into soil and sealed
to prevent moisture loss
Disturbed Samples
◦ auger samples- taken at surface depth unknown
◦ split spoon sampler-depth known
ENCI 579 28
Soils Investigation
FieldTesting
◦ Standard penetration test
most common strength test conducted in the field
number of blows (N value) required to drive sampler
into the soil layer 30 cm by a standard mass ( 63.5 Kg)
dropped a specific distance ( 75 cm).
Used on all soils except gravel
a disturbed sample can also be taken from the spoon
◦ Vane
measures cohesiveness in clays
shoved into the soil and a torque applied
ENCI 579 29
Soils Investigation
ENCI 579 30
Soils Investigation
Field testing
◦ Cone
cone is driven through the soil and the number of blows
for each foot recorded.
Indicates the depth of fill or the depth to layer changes
◦ Pressuremeter test
probe consisting of three cell,upper and lower prevents
middle cell from expanding vertically
pressure from a gas is applied to the probe and any volume
change is measured by a volumeter
settlement prediction and shear strength
ENCI 579 31
ENCI 579 32
Soils Investigation
Water table elevation determination
◦ measure down the hole to the water table as
water fills the hole
easily done for granular soils
◦ piezometer for fine grained clay soils
ENCI 579 33
Soils Investigation
ENCI 579 34
Soils Investigation
Field log of the test hole
◦ sample number, depth and type
◦ field tests,depth and results
◦ depth to layer changes
◦ field soil description
type of soil grains
moisture conditions
consistency or density
seams and stratification
other distinguishing features
ENCI 579 35
Test Hole No. ---1 Drilling Method
-- A_u_.3,_(,_r_
Date --- � - --�
'f 6 161 1 Depth to water:
immediate 1.'L l'k
24 hours 1. 0
l'k
Depth SPT
Soil Description Sample
(m Value "N"
) Depth
No. Type (m)
0 .
2.
wii/... <1.i-'L ,.,,_
/...Q-ro(
spoo1
1.
33 .
gSOlk(, sili, tkoisi,
)
5
'L.i - -------------------- ------- ------- -------
3. -----
0 ' ----Cl0-y, so!i
------- .
W(,i r.5/...(,l 3.0-3.6
3.
('Li-3.6 l'k)
- by "
5
E o! i (.5"! /...ol
------ -------- -------
3.6
e,
-----
Figure 2-7 Typical field notes.
ENCI 579 36
Soils Investigation
LaboratoryTesting
◦ representative samples of each soil type found
at the site
◦ types of testing done depends on soil type,
cohesive or granular, and if the sample is
disturbed or undisturbed
ENCI 579 37
Soils Investigation
ENCI 579 38
Soils Investigation
Soils Report
◦ includes a summary of the test program
◦ general description of soil conditions
◦ detailed analysis of each soil type found
◦ recommendations for the design
◦ copies of test hole logs and a soil profile
ENCI 579 39
Ch. 2 Soils Investigation
Gravel
ISand
I
Silt Clay Organic Till
s
�
z Bed Rock
Water Table
Type o] Sample Soil Tests
S.S. - Split Spoon F.V. - Field Vane
S.T. - Shelby Tube L.V. - Lab Vane
A.S. - Auger Sample Q - Unconfined Compression
W.S. - Washed Sample u - Undrained (quick) Triaxial
R.C. - Rock Core Qq - Dynamic Cone {Blows per foot)
V.S. - Vane Shear Sample C
ENCI 579 41
Vane shear tests were conducted in holes 1 and 3:
ENCI 579 44
3. LABORATORY TESTS
ShearStr�h
kPa (lb! )
(Unconfined
Sample No. w WL Wp Compression Test)
1 21
2 47 53 21
3 11
4 9
5 26
6 58 55 20
7 40 51 26 42
8 15 (850)
9 11
10 16
11 41 58 29 65
12 18 (1300)
13 12
57
6
57
12
5 sz_·..
=:= 4
. Gray, silty clay 1
till
57 1
4 4 8
e
. ..
57
....S 3
e
>
2 1
.i"ii! 4 1
. 1 1 0 2
. 57 Silty sand
2 3
3
57
1
6 1
0 1
57
0
56
9
Figure 2-11 $oil profile.
ENCI 579 47
Estimation of Settlement
Prediction of settlement is an important part of
foundation design to ensure the future stability and
serviceability of the structure supported by the
foundation.The prediction of settlement should be :
◦ based on the results of a proper site investigation and
appropriate laboratory or field tests identifying the conditions of
the groundwater and the ground that contribute to the
settlement of the foundation;
◦ based on the principles of mechanics or established empirical
methods proven with adequate correlation;and
Site Investigation
“A comprehensive accumulation of information
on the ground and its characteristics so as to
facilitate an appropriate foundation design and
enable a practical, safe and economic
construction process to be planned”.
Steps:
1. Assembly of available information
2. Reconnaissance of the area
3. Preliminary site investigation
4. Detailed site investigation
Less is more?
For straight forward ground conditions:
Use-
Maps & historical data
Desk studies
Previous SI’s
Published data for soil and rock type
Limited intrusive SI
FJat.s 5 i
oo
fI
I
----]- I
I
I
I
Compacted Layer
I
I
Sa:ft .MatsdaJ I
l
I
· · Zon
c e
For Foundations..
Foundation Design Preparation:
◦ Calculate proposed loads to be transmitted by foundation to
underlying rocks & soils.
◦ Incorporate all requirements into design of foundations.
◦ Obtain data on soils & rock properties.
◦ Soil investigations-
Check for natural exposures in road cuts or gullies,or auger drill
for samples;
Laboratory test soils for shear strength,compressibility,swelling
characteristics
Disturbed soils have lost soil structure- limited use
Undisturbed soils used for wet/dry density,triaxial
shear, & compression,permeability, consolidation tests
Soil samples change on exposure to air- extended
exposure reduces their suitability for testing.
In-situ measurements give superior physical
determinations.
Depth of Boring
The approximate required minimum depth of
the borings should be predetermined.The
estimated depths can be changed during the
drilling operation, depending on the subsoil
encoun•tered.
80
Depth of Boring
81
Spacing Boring
There are no hard and fast rules for the spacing of the
boreholes.The following table gives some general guidelines for
borehole spacing. These spacing can be increased or
decreased, depending on the subsoil condition. If various soil
strata are more or less uniform and predictable, the number of
boreholes can be reduced.
82
Investigations in Rock sites
RockVariability:
◦ Rocks & lithologies highly variable in all three dimensions.
◦ Must assess this variability/ anisotropy.
◦ Not all rocks outcrop equally- some more resistant to weathering.
◦ Surface outcrops can yield biased data,if considered solely.
◦ Soft & less resistant rocks may not outcrop at all.
◦ All rocks can be obscured by thin sheets of younger sediments.
◦ Deformation features such as folds,faults,
fractures,shear zones must be identified.
◦ These are frequently preferentially weathered &
infilled by secondary materials.
◦ Folds alter orientations of planes of weakness.
◦ Weathering depths may vary considerably over
different rock types - affect rock strengths.
Site Investigations
Planes ofWeakness:
◦ Discontinuities in rocks have > effect on rock properties than
lithology.
◦ Include - bedding planes,joints,foliations,cleavage,faults,etc.
◦ All influence Foundation design.
◦ Remember- compressive strength is > perpendicular to discontinuity
than // to it.
◦ All discontinuities evaluated for character,orientation,frequency,etc.
◦ Data best determined on rock exposures- more difficult on core.
◦ Trenches & costeans very useful.
Site Investigations for Foundations
Three main types-
◦ Solid rock - rock strength & discontinuities identified.
◦ Soil & solid rock at accessible depths - establish depth
to Bedrock & as above.
◦ No Solid Rock - must place foundations in unconsolidated
materials .Must also allow for rate of anticipated settling.
ROCK SAMPLING
86
Rock coring
87
ROCK SAMPLING - Definition
88
Rock Core Drilling
Done with either
tungsten carbide or
diamond core bits
Use a double or triple
tube core barrel when
sampling weathered or
fractured rock
Used to determine
Rock Quality
Designation
core barrel 89
Rock Quality Designation RQD
90
Rock Quality Designation
RQD
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is defined as the
percentage of rock cores that have length equal or
greater than 10 cm over the total drill length.
91
Example on Core Recovery & RQD
92
Site Investigations
General Procedures:
◦ Collect & assess all published accessible data on soils & rocks.
◦ Conduct detailed geological study of project areas.
◦ Use combination of drilling & geophysical surveys to complete
geology,and confirm interpreted geology from surface outcrops.
◦ Field test sub surface materials to determine engineering properties.
◦ Detailed laboratory tests on sub surface materials to determine
physical properties.
◦ All data reviewed,assessed, & recommendations
made on site suitability for project.
◦ Continued investigations of sub surface materials
while project constructed -confirms earlier
interpretations or leads to modifications of plans/
construction methods.
Dam Foundations:
◦ Small dams for rural purposes- based on soil mechanics & sited
in gully
◦ Large Dams- must investigate underlying rocks of dam area:
Check rock strength is adequate to support water load;
Check for weakness planes & potential slippage;
Establish orientation of any weakness planes;
Depth of weathering- removal prior to dam construction;
Determine Durability of rock to water exposure;
Measure rock permeability;
Identify any seismic record of earthquake activity;
Dam type chosen based on availability of materials;
Establish risk of siltation reducing dam capacity,before
construction.
Geophysical techniques:
Advantages
◦ Relatively low cost
◦ Obtain results quickly
◦ Can be undertaken in rough ,inhospitable terrains by
small teams and
◦ Can assist planning of expensive drilling programs.
Limitations
◦ Techniques all identify boundaries between two layers
with appreciably different properties.Little contrast -
poor definition of layers.
◦ Requires confirmation by independent means.
Techniques
◦ Seismic reflection & refraction
◦ Electrical resistivity (ER)
◦ Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
◦ Gravity & Magnetic Surveys, and
◦ Downhole techniques.
Seismic Methods
Seismic Methods involve propagation of waves through
earth materials.The methods can be seismic refraction and
seismic reflection methods.
Seismic Refraction:
◦ Theory of refraction derived from behaviour of rays that bend on
entering a different velocity medium.The larger the velocity
difference between two media,the larger the refraction.
◦ Used for depths of 30-60 metres.Soils below ground water table
can be distinguished from unsaturated soils above water table
Seismic Reflection:
◦ Depths determined by observing travel times of P waves generated
near surface & reflected back from deep formations.Comparable
to echo sounding of water depths.
◦ Advantages- permits mapping of many horizons for each shot.Can
determine depths to dipping interfaces,as well as angle of dip.
Electric Methods
◦ Electrical methods involve measurement of electrical
properties of earth materials either-
measurement of natural earth currents,or
the resistance to induced electrical flow.
◦ Natural earth current flow generated under
geological conditions in which anode & cathode
develop naturally.
Measurement of strength & extent of current
helps establish geologic conditions.
◦ Electrical resistivity is resistance to electrical flow
through earth materials.Current induced &
resistivity measured- identifies basic property of
earth material.
Advanta
ges
• Non-Destructive
• Cost Effective
• Provides Preliminary or
Supplemental
Information
Summary :
Refraction seismic & electrical resistivity are two most
applicable techniques to engineering geology.
Best methods practicable for exploring shallow depths of
the sub-surface to 30 m.
If there is a low velocity layer below a high velocity
layer,refraction seismic will not work properly.
This occurs where sand & gravel layer lies below a
clay layer
Electrical resistivity method would work well here;
Refraction seismic works well where soil overlies bedrock.
Ground-penetrating Radar
Essentially the same as Reflection Seismology
Radar impulse is energy source & receiver used to
detect reflections
Strength of reflections depends on the
electromagnetic properties.
GPR :
◦ Can identify sinkholes at depths of 25 m
◦ Subsurface anomalies were identified as voids in old
earth-filled dam in Michigan -locations aided in a
grouting program to fill voids
◦ Gaining rapid acceptance in environmental
engineering applications
◦ Can be used for non-destructive testing of highways
Application of GPR for different
Antenna
◦ Utilizes dipole
anomalies arising
from vertical linear
features
◦ Particularly useful for
identifying buried
mine shafts
Gravity surveys
Underground voids or low
density rock/soil show up as
negative anomalies
Usual to drill all negative
anomalies
Magnetic & Gravity Methods:
◦ Rarely used in engineering
geology;
◦
Many new geophysical devices
that utilise these properties of
◦ rocks;
Most commonly used in
delineation of buried valleys or
basin fills.
Well logging methods
A variety of techniques that involve lowering instruments
down a drill hole & generating data on sub- surface rock
types as the instrument traverses the hole.
29 fatalities
Nelson County, VA
Slope Stability
I. Stresses and Strength
A. Applies to all sloping surfaces
• Balancing of driving and resisting forces
• If Resisting forces > Driving Forces: stability
Slope Stability
I. Stresses and Strength
A. Applies to all sloping surfaces
• Balancing of driving and resisting forces
• If Resisting forces > Driving Forces: stability
B. EngineeringApproach
• Delineate the surface that is most at risk
• Calculate the stresses
• Calculate the Shear Strength
A Friendly Review From Last Month……
σ = Force / Area
cos Θ = a = Fn
h = Fg
sin Θ = o = Fs
h = Fg
Fn = Fg cos Θ
Fs = Fg sin Θ
Shear Stress Analysis
Fn = Fg cos Θ
Find the
Shear stress Fs = Fg sin Θ
Fn = Fg cos Θ
Fs = Fg sin Θ
II. Planar Slide—case 1
Volume of Slice =
MO x PR x 0.5 x 1 ft
II. Planar Slide—case 1
Volume of Slice =
MO x PR x 0.5 x 1 ft
I t'l<tX I Cl I
A l)t..fe.rt>1111es- for- So1fs
Tert
. I. A ��le. &f lf
Ltfern<t} Fr,c1to"
2. . Co h�s t o 1-\
C..
. - - - - -B- - - -----.- .
- - - - .- - - - -----
Sa = Shear Stress
Sa = W sin β
W = Fg
Fn = Fg cos β
Fs = Fg sin β
Sa = W sin β
Fn = Fg cos β
Fs = Fg sin β
Sr = Friction + Cohesion
= W cos β tan ϕ + c * (segment MO)
Sr = W cos β tan ϕ + cL
Factor of Safety
Fs = Sr = W cos βtan ϕ + cL
Sa = W sin β
An Example…..
Factor of Safety
•Slope of 23 degrees
•Angle of internal friction of 30 degrees
Fs = Sr = W cos βtan ϕ + cL
•Cohesion of 90 lbs/ft2
•Soil is 100lbs/ft3 Sa = W sin β
•MO has a distance of 100 ft
•PR has a distance of 22 ft
154
Introduction
Earth Pressure
The force which is on the retaining wall when the soil is
retained at a slope steeper than it can sustain by virtue of its
shearing strength.
1- sin$ =K
1
,
where K = tan2 (45� -
=
O
lts1n4 Q/2)
>
For a total height of H of the thrust o the per unit length
wall, the total P. n wall of the
wall, is given by
P, • 1 (Iq
2
K,yH·' 1310)
'This may be taken to act at a height of the base as shewn,
(1/3)H abeve through the
rentroid of the pressure distribution diagram
Effect of Submergence
(i) Lateral earth pressure due to submerged unit weight of the backfill soil; and
(ii) Lateral pressure due to pore water.
The lateral pressure above the water table is due to the most
unit weight of soil, and that below the water table is the sum
of that due to the submerged unit weight of the soil and the
water pressure.
• where H1 = depth of submerged fill,
• Ka = active earth pressure coefficient,
• H2 = depth of fill above water table (taken to be moist),
• γ = moist unit weight, and
• γ ′ = submerged or effective unit weight.
The total active thrust Pa per unit length of the wall acts at
(1/3)H above the base of the wall and is equal to 1/2 Kaɤ.H2; it
acts parallel to the surface of the fill.
Active Earth Pressure of Cohesive Soil
The total passive resistance per unit length ofwall is Pp :Pp+ Pp" = t ylf-
N• +2cH .jN;.
Pp acts at H/3 and PP• acts at H/2 above the base. The location of PP
may be found be
moments about the base.
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Assumptions;
The backfill is a dry, cohesionless, homogeneous, isotropic soil.
The backfill surface is planar and can be inclined.
The back of the wall can be inclined to the vertical.
The failure surface is a plane surface which passes through the heel of the
wall.
The position and the line of action of the earth pressure are known.
The sliding wedge is considered to be a rigid body and the earth pressure is
obtained by considering the limiting equilibrium of the sliding wedge as a
whole.
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Coulomb’s Theory of Earth Pressure
Coulomb Equations for c=0 Backfills
Retaining Walls and Lateral Pressure
Structures that are built to retain vertical or nearly
vertical earth banks or any other material are
called retaining walls. Retaining walls may be
constructed of masonry or sheet piles.
All the walls listed in Fig have to withstand lateral
pressures either from earth or any other material
on their faces.
Gravity walls resist movement because of their
heavy sections.They are built of mass concrete or
stone or brick masonry.
In all these cases, the backfill tries to move the
wall from its position.The movement of the wall is
partly resisted by the wall itself and partly by soil
in front of the wall.
180
Various types of Retaining walls
181
Active Earth Pressure
A retaining wall backfilled with cohesion less soil shown in Fig. If
the wall does not move even after back filling, the pressure
exerted on the wall is termed as pressure for the at rest condition of
the wall
If suppose the wall gradually rotates about point A and moves away
from the backfill,the unit pressure on the wall is gradually reduced and
after a particular displacement of the wall at the top, the pressure
reaches a constant value.The pressure is the minimum possible.
This pressure is termed the active pressure since the weight of the
backfill is responsible for the movement of the wall.
If the wall surface is smooth, the resultant pressure acts normal to
the face of the wall. If the wall is rough, it makes an angle б with
the normal on the wall.The angle б is called the angle of wall friction.
As the wall moves away from the backfill, the soil tends to move
forward.
182
Active and Passive lateral pressure
When the wall movement is sufficient, a soil mass of weight W ruptures
along surface ADC shown in Fig (a).This surface is slightly curved. If the
surface is assumed to be a plane surface AC,analysis would indicate that
this surface would make an angle of 45° + ɸ/2 with the horizontal.
If the wall is now rotated about A towards the backfill,the actual failure
plane ADC is also a curved surface Fig (b).
However, if the failure surface is approximated as a plane AC,this makes
an angle 45° - ɸ/2 with the horizontal and the pressure on the wall
increases from the value of the at rest condition to the maximum
value possible.
The maximum pressure P that is developed is termed the passive earth
pressure.The pressure is called passive because the weight of the backfill
opposes the movement of the wall. It makes an angle б with the normal
if the wall is rough.
183
Lateral Earth Pressure at rest
condition
If the wall is rigid and does not move with the pressure exerted on the wall, the soil behind
the wall will be in a state of elastic equilibrium. Consider a prismatic element E in the
backfill at depth z shown in Fig.
Element E is subjected to the following pressures.бz= ɣz; lateral pressure =бh
where ɣ is the effective unit weight of the soil. If we consider the backfill is homogeneous
then both бz and бh increase linearly with depth z.In such a case,the ratio бz of ah to бh remains
constant with respect to depth, that is
where Ko is called the coefficient of earth pressure for the at rest condition or at rest earth
pressure coefficient.
The lateral earth pressure бh acting on the w all at any depth z may be expressed as бh = Koɣz
and
185
RANKINE'S EARTH PRESSURE AGAINST SMOOTH
VERTICAL WALL WITH COHESIONLESS BACKFILL
I. Backfill Horizontal-Active Earth Pressure
A semi-infinite mass is replaced by a smooth wall AB in Fig.
The lateral pressure acting against smooth wall AB is due to the mass
of soil ABC above failure line AC which makes an angle of 45° + ɸ/2
with the horizontal.The lateral pressure distribution on wall AB of height
H increases in simple proportion to depth.The pressure acts normal to the
wall AB
The lateral active pressure at A is
186
II. Backfill Horizontal-Passive Earth Pressure
If wall AB is pushed into the mass to such an extent as to impart uniform compression throughout
the mass, soil wedge ABC in Fig(a).will be in Rankine's passive state of plastic equilibrium.
The inner rupture plane AC makes an angle 45° + ɸ/2 with the vertical AB.The pressure
distribution on wall AB is linear as shown in Fig(b).
187
Active Earth Pressure-Backfill Soil Submerged with
the Surface Horizontal
When the backfill is fully submerged, two types of pressures act on wall AB,as shown in
Fig
1. The active earth pressure due to the
submerged weight of soil
2.The lateral pressure due to water
At any depth z the total unit pressure on the wall is
188
with a Uniform Surcharge Load
The soil upto depth H1 is moist whereas
Below this point for depth H2 is submerged.
At depth H1 at the level of the water table
At depth H we have the lateral pressure due to surcha rge,the moist soil for dept h H1,the submerged soil for depth H2 and water pressure for
depth H2.
The total pressure Pa acting per unit length of the wall may be written as equal to:
The point of appli cation of Pa above the base of the wall can be found by taking m ments of all the forces acting on the wall about A.
189
Solved Example
A cantilever retaining wall of 7 meter height (Fig. Ex. 11.2) retains sand.The properties of
the sand are: e = 0.5,ɸ = 30° and G = 2.7.Using Rankine's theory determine the active earth
pressure at the
base when the backfill is (i) dry, (ii) saturated and (iii) submerged, and also the resultant
active force in each case. In addition determine the total water pressure under the
submerged condition.
190
Assignment
A rigid retaining wall 5 m high supports a backfill of cohesionless soil with ɸ= 30°.The
water table is below the base of the wall.The backfill is dry and has a unit weight of 18
kN/m3. Determine Rankine's passive earth pressure per meter length of the wall
A counter fort wall of 10 m height retains a non-cohesive backfill.The void ratio and angle
of internal friction of the backfill respectively are 0.70 and 30° in the loose state and they
are 0.40 and 40° in the dense state. Calculate and compare active and passive earth
pressures for both the cases.Take the specific gravity of solids as 2.7.
193
SAND FOR ACTIVE STATE
Coulomb made the following assumptions in the
development of his theory:
1.The soil is isotropic and homogeneous
2.The rupture surface is a plane surface
3.The failure wedge is a rigid body
4.The pressure surface is a plane surface
5.There is wall friction on the pressure surface
6. Failure is two-dimensional and
7.The soil is cohesionless
194
In Fig AB is the pressure face
The backfill surface BE is a plane inclined at an angle ß with the horizontal
α is the angle made by the pressure face AB with the horizontal
H is the height of the wall
AC is the assumed rupture plane surface,and
θ is the angle made by the surface AC with the horizontal
The weight of the wedgeW length of the wall may be written as
W = γA,where A = area of wedge ABC
Area of wedge ABC = A = 1/2 AC x BD,where BD is drawn perpendicular to AC.
From the law of sines, we have
Making the substitution and simplifying
we have,
The various forces that are acting on the wedge are shown in Fig
a
195
As the pressure face AB moves away from the backfill, there will be sliding of the soil mass
along the wall from B towardsA.The sliding of the soil mass is resisted by the friction of
the surface.The direction of the shear stress is in the direction fromA towards B.
lf Pn is the total normal reaction of the soil pressure acting on faceAB, the resultant of Pn
and the shearing stress is the active pressure Pa making an angle δ with the normal. Since
the shearing stress acts upwards, the resulting Pa dips below the normal.The angle δ for
this condition is considered positive.
As the wedge ABC ruptures along plane AC,it slides along this plane.This is resisted by the
frictional force acting between the soil at rest belowAC, and the sliding wedge.The
resisting shearing stress is acting in the direction fromA towards C.IfWn is the normal
component of the weight of wedge W on plane AC,the resultant of the normalWn and the shearing
stress is the reaction R.This makes an angle ϕ with the normal since the rupture takes place within
the soil itself.
196
Statical equilibrium requires that the three forces Pa,W,and R meet at a point.Since AC is not
the actual rupture plane, the three forces do not meet at a point. But if the actual surface
of failure AC'C is considered, all three forces meet at a point. However, the error due to
the non concurrence of the forces is very insignificant and as such may be neglected.
The polygon of forces is shown in Fig.
In Eq. , the only variable is θ and all the other ter ms for a given case are constants.Substituti ng
for W,we have
The maximum value for Pa is obtained by differentiat ing Eq. with respect to θ and equating the
derivative to zero, i.e.
The maximum value of Pa so obtained may be written as
197
Active earth pressure coefficients KA for ß=0 and α = 90 deg
198
where KA is the active earth pressure coefficient.
The total normal component Pn of the earth pressure on the back of the wall is
If the wall is vertical and smooth, and if the backfill is horizontal, we have
ß=δ= 0 and α= 90 deg,Substituting these values in Eq.
199
COULOMB'S EARTH PRESSURE THEORY FOR
SAND FOR PASSIVE STATE
As the wall moves into the backfill, the
soil tries to move up on the pressure
surfaceAB which is resisted by friction of
the surface. Shearing stress on this surface
therefore acts downward.The passive
earth pressure P is the resultant of the normal pressure P and the shearing
stress.The shearing force is rotated upward with an angle δ which is again
the angle of wall friction. In this case S is positive.
As the rupture takes place along assumed plane surfaceAC, the soil tries to move up the
plane which is resisted by the frictional force acting on that line.The shearing stress
therefore, acts downward.The reaction R makes an angle ϕ with the normal and is rotated
upwards as shown in the figure.The polygon of forces is shown in (b) of t he Fig.
Differentiating Eq. with respect to θ and setting the
derivative to zero,gives the minimum value of Pp as
2w0h
0ere Kp is called the passive earth pressure coefficient.
ACTIVE PRESSURE BY CULMANN'S METHOD
FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS
Culmann's (1875) method is the same as the trial wedge method. In
Culmann's method, the force polygons are constructed directly on the ϕ-lineAE takingAE as
the load line.The procedure is as follows:
1. Draw ϕ -line AE at an angle ϕ to the horizontal.
2. Lay off onAE distances,AV,A1,A2,A3,
etc. to a suitable scale to represent the weights
of wedgesABV,A51,AS2,AS3, etc. respectively.
3. Draw lines parallel to AD from pointsV,1,2,3 to intersect assumed rupture lines AV,Al,A2,A3 at points
V",I',2',3',etc.respectively.
4. Join points V,1',2' 3' etc.by a smooth curve which is the pressure locus.
5. Select point C‘ on the pressure locus such that the tangent to the curve at this point is parallel to
the ϕ-line AE.
6. Draw C'C parallel to the pressure line AD.The magnitude of C'C in its natural units gives the active
pressure Pa.
7.Join AC" and produce to meet the surface of the backfill at C.AC is the rupture line.For the plane backfill
surface,the point of application of Pa is at a height of H/3 from the base of the wall.
201
E
Press loc 4
Rupture ure us
line 2 3
c
,, , , ,
v , ,,, ,
B
•
,
,,
p
a-
•
Norm
o
H al
w
H/
3 a-o
Pressure
line
Venic
aJ D
202 (a (b
l )
Example:
For a retaining wall system, the following data were available: (i) Height of wall = 7 m, (ii) Properties of
backfill: γd = 16 kN/m3,ϕ = 35°,(iii) angle of wall friction,8 = 20°,(iv) back of wall is inclined at 20° to the
vertical (positive batter), and (v) backfill surface is sloping at 1 : 10.Determine the magnitude of the
active earth pressure by Culmann's method.
204
STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS
205
Lateral Earth Pressure
σv ‘
H
σh ‘
σv z
H
σh
207
At Rest Earth Pressure
At rest earth pressure occur when there is no wall rotation such as
in a braced wall (basement wall for example)
σv z
H
σh
208
Active Earth Pressure
Active earth pressure occurs when the wall tilts away from the soil
(a typical free standing retaining wall)
209
Active Earth Pressure
Active earth pressure occurs when the wall tilts away from the soil
(a typical free standing retaining wall)
210
Active Earth Pressure
Active earth pressure occurs when the wall tilts away from the soil
(a typical free standing retaining wall)
211
Active Earth Pressure
Active earth pressure occurs when the wall tilts away from the soil
(a typical free standing retaining wall)
Ka can be calculated as follows:
Ka = tan2 (45 – φ/2)
thus: σa‗ = Ka σv‘ – 2 c (Ka)1/2
Failure wedge
H
45 + φ/2
212
Passive Earth Pressure
Passive earth pressure occurs when the wall is pushed into the soil
(typically a seismic load pushing the wall into the soil or a foundation
pushing into the soil)
Kp can be calculated as follows:
Kp = tan2 (45 + φ/2)
thus: σp‗ = Kp σv‘ + 2 c (Kp)1/2
45 - φ/2
213
Active Stress Distribution (c = 0)
γ
c=0
H Φ
dry soil
Pa = ?
γ
c=0
H Φ
dry soil
Pp = ?
Ka γ H1
H2
Pa
Ka γ H1 Ka γ‘ H2 γw H2
or
Ka (γ H1 + γ‘ H 2)
H2
Pa
Ka γ H1 Ka γ‘ H2 γw H2
or
Ka (γ H1 + γ‘ H 2)
217
Active Stress Distribution (c ≠ 0)
zo
γ
c≠0
H Φ _
dry soil - =
Ka γH 2 c (Ka)1/2 Ka γH – 2 c (Ka)1/2
Find zo:
Ka γzo – 2 c (Ka)1/2 = 0
Zo = 2c / γ (Ka)1/2
218 Pa = ?
Passive Stress Distribution (c ≠ 0)
γ
c≠0
H Φ
dry soil +- =
Kp γH 2 c (Kp)1/2 Kp γH + 2 c (Kp)1/2
Pp = ?
219
Retaining Walls
Learning Outcomes:
• After this class students will be able to do the complete
design and detailing of different types of retaining walls.
221
RETAINING WALL
GL2
Gravity retaining
wall
222
Cantilever Retaining wall with
shear key
Batter
Drainage Hole
Toe
223
Photos of Retaining walls
224
Classification of Retaining walls
225
Classification of Retaining walls
Backfill Backfill
Tile
drain
Gravity RW L-Shaped RW
T-Shaped RW
Backfill
Back
Counterfort Buttress
Weep
hole
Counterfort RW Buttress RW
226
Earth Pressure (P)
227
Factors affecting earth pressure
Earth pressure depends on type of backfill, the
height of wall and the soil conditions
228
Analysis for dry back fills
229
Where, ka= Coefficient of active earth pressure
= (1-sin)/(1+sin)=tan2
= 1/kp, coefficient of passive earth pressure
= Angle of internal friction or angle of repose
=Unit weigh or density of backfill
230
Backfill with sloping surface
231
Stability requirements of RW
232
Check against overturning
As per IS:456-2000,
MR>1.2 MO, ch. DL + 1.4 MO, ch. IL
0.9 MR 1.4 MO, ch IL
233
Check against Sliding
As per IS:456:2000
1.4 = ( 0.9W)/Pa
Friction W
SLIDING OF
WALL 234
Design of Shear key
In case the wall is unsafe
against sliding
C R=Total passive
A R pp a resistance=ppxa
=45 +
B W ka(H+
/2 a)
235
Design of Shear key-Contd.,
W4 H
x1 W1
h
W
W2
x2 Pa
R
H/3
W3
T
e b/6
x b/2
b
237
Let the resultant R due to W and Pa
lie at a distance x from the toe.
X = M/W,
M = sum of all moments about toe.
238
Depth of foundation
Rankine’s formula:
2
Df =
SBC 1 sin
1 sin
SBC 2 Df
= ka
γ
239
Preliminary Proportioning
(T shaped wall)
200
Stem:Top width 200 mm to 400 mm
Base slab width b= 0.4H to 0.6H, 0.6H
to 0.75H for surcharged wall
Base slab thickness= H/10 to H/14 H
b= 0.4H to 0.6H
240
Behaviour or structural action
Behaviour or structural
action and design of
stem, heel and toe
slabs are same as that
of any cantilever slab.
241
Design of Cantilever RW
Stem, toe and heel acts as cantilever slabs
Mu=0.87 fy Ast[d-fyAst/(fckb)]
242
Curtailment of bars
1. Heel slab and toe slab should also be designed as cantilever. For this
stability analysis should be performed as explained and determine
the maximum bending moments at the junction.
2. Determine the reinforcement.
3. Also check for shear at the junction.
4. Provide enough development length.
5. Provide the distribution steel
244
Cantilever RW design
Solution
Data: h' = 4m, SBC= 200 kN/m2, = 18 kN/m3, μ=0.6, φ=30°
245
Depth of foundation
To fix the height of retaining wall [H]
200
H= h' +Df
Depth of foundation
h1 h
H
2
SBC 1 sin
D
f = 1 sin
Df
Therefore H= 5.2m
246
Proportioning of wall
Thickness of base slab=(1/10 to1/14)H 200
Ldt
Spacing of bars = 180 mm c/c Ast
< 300 mm and 3d ok h2
Ast/2 Ast
Provide
Ast d
249
Design of stem-Contd.,
Development length (Stem steel) 200
Ld=47 φbar =47 x 12 = 564 mm
450
Distribution steel b= 3000 mm
= 0.12% GA = 0.12x450 x 1000/100
= 540 mm2
#10 @ 140 < 450 mm and 5d ok
250
Check for shear
200
251
Stability analysis
Distance BM about A
Load Magnitude, kN from A, m kN-m
Stem W1 0.2x4.75x1x25 = 23.75 1.1 26.13
½ x0.25x4.75x1x25 0.75 + 2/3x0.25
Stem W2 = 14.84 =0.316 13.60
254
0.75m 0.45m 1.8m
30.16 kN/m2
120.6 kN/m2
24.1
97.99
22.6
Pressure below the Retaining Wall
ROCK
Friction Piles
If the firm soil is at a considerable
depth, it may be very expensive to use
end bearing piles. In such situations, the
piles are driven through the penetrable
soil for some distance. The piles
transmit the load of structure to the
penetrable soil by means of skin friction
between the soil.
Replacement piles
They are formed by machine boring, grabbing or hand-digging.
Loads applied to Piles
V
M
Combinations of vertical, horizontal and moment loading may be H
applied at the soil surface from the overlying structure
For the majority of foundations the loads applied to the piles are
primarily vertical
For piles in jetties, foundations for bridge piers, tall chimneys, and
offshore piled foundations the lateral resistance is an important
consideration
The analysis of piles subjected to lateral and moment loading is more
complex than simple vertical loading because of the soil-structure
interaction.
Pile installation will always cause change of adjacent soil properties,
sometimes good, sometimes bad.
Modes of failure
The soil is always failure by punching shear.
The failure mode of pile is always in buckling failure mode.
Total and Effective Stress Analysis
To determine drained or undrained condition, we may need to
consider the following factors:
Drainage condition in the various soil strata
Permeability of soils
Rate of application of loads
Duration after the application of load
A rough indicator will be theTime Factor (Tv=cvt/d2)
Displacement Pile (A/D)
Advantage Disadvantages
Pile material can be inspected for May break during driving
quality before driving
Construction operation affect by Noise and vibration problems
ground water
Can driven in very long lengths Cannot be driven in condition of
low headroom
Construction operation not affected Noise may prove unacceptable.
by ground water Noise permit may be required
Soil disposal is not necessary Vibration may prove unacceptable
due to presence of sensitive
structures, utility installation or
machinery
Replacement Pile (A/D)
Advantage Disadvantages
Less noise or vibration problem Concrete cannot be inspected after
installation
Equipment can break up practically all Liable to squeezing or necking
kinds of obstructions
Can be installed in conditions of low Raking bored pile are difficult to
headroom construct
No ground heave Drilling a number of pile groups may
cause ground loss and settlement of
adjacent structures
Depth and diameter can varied easily Cannot be extended above ground
level without special adaptation
Ultimate capacity of axially load single
pileEstimated
in soilby designer based on soil data and somewhat empirical procedures. It
is common practice that the pile capacity be verified by pile load test at an early
stage such that design amendment can be made prior to installation of the
project piles.The satisfactory performance of a pile is, in most cases, governed
by the limiting acceptable deformation under various loading conditions.
Therefore the settlement should also be checked.
Basic Concept Qu
The ultimate bearing capacity (Qu )of a pile
may be assessed using soil mechanics
principles. The capacity is assumed to be the
sum of skin friction and end-bearing
resistance, i.e
Qs
Qu=Qb+Qs-W ……………….(1)
where
Qu total pile resistance,
Qb is the end bearing resistance and W
Qs is side friction resistance
General behaviour
Shaft resistance fully mobilized at small pile
Qb
movement (<0.01D)
Base resistance mobilized at large movement Qu = Qs + Qb - W
(0.1D)
Loadin Loadin
g g
Qu Qu
QS QB
QB QS
Settleme Settleme
ntBearing
Behaviour of Frictniotnal Pile Behaviour of End
Pile
Piles founded on strong stratum
Piles founded on dense soils Not much benefit in enhancing base resistance
Important to adopt good construction Important to adopt good construction practice
practice to enhance shaft friction and
to enhance shaft friction
base resistance
Shaft grouting useful in enhancing pile capacity
Shaft and base grouting useful in
enhancing pile capacity
Ultimate Limit State Design
QT
QDES = QB/FB + Qs /Fs –W……(2)
d
Where FB and FS is the factor of safety
of components of end bearing strength ho
and shaft friction strength
QU = QB + Qs–W……(3) D
Qs
QB
End Bearing Resistance
Assumptions
1. The weight of the pile is similar to the weight of the soil displaced of
the pile
=> Wp=AbPo
2. The length (L) of the pile is much greater than its width d
=> Wp=AbPo+ Ab dN/2
3. Similarly for Nq approximately equal to Nq-1
Qb=Ab[cbNc+Po(Nq-1)+d/2N+Po] –Wp
=> Qb=Ab[cbNc+PoNq]
End Bearing resistance for Bore pile in
granular soils
Due to the natural of granular soil, the c’ can be assumed equation to zero.
The ultimate end bearing resistance for bored pile in granular soils may be
express in terms of vertical effective stress, ‘v and the bearing capacity
factors Nq as :
QB=AB Nq v‘
Qs = pLqs
Where p is the perimeter of the pile and L is the total length of the pile
Driven pile in Granular soils
where
Nc= 9 when the location of the pile base below ground surface exceeds fours times the
pile diameter
Bored pile in Clays
The ultimate shaft friction (qs) for soils in stiff over-
consolidated clays may be estimated on the semi-
empirical method as:
qs=Cu
is the adhesion factor (range from 0.4 to 0.9)
Driven Pile in Clays
The design concepts are similar to those presented for bored
piles in granular soils. However, based on the available
instrumented pile test results, a design curve is put forward
by Nowacki et al (1992)
Prediction of Ultimate Capacity of Pile
Pile Driving Formula
Pile driving formula relate the ultimate bearing capacity of driven piles to final
set (i.e. penetration per blow). In Hong Kong, the Hiley formula has been widely
used for the design of driven piles as:
Rd=(hWhdh)/(s+c/2)
Where
Rd is driving resistance, h is efficiency of hammer, Wh is the weight of
hammer, dh is the height of fall of hammer, s is permanent set of pile and c is
elastic movement of pile
Note:Test driving may be considered at the start of a driven piling contract to assess the
expected driving characteristics.
Prediction of Ultimate Capacity of Pile
Pile LoadTest
Static pile load test is the most reliable means of determining the load
capacity of a pile.The test procedure consists of applying static load to the
pile in increments up to a designated level of load and recording the vertical
deflection of the pile.The load is usually transmitted by means of a hydraulic
jack placed between the top of the pile and a beam supported by tow or
more reaction piles.The vertical deflection of the top of the pile is usually
measured by mechanical gauges attached to a beam, which span over the test
pile.
UNIT 5: WELL FOUNDATIONS
types, different shapes of wells, components
of wells, sinking of well, tilts and shifts.
COURSE OUTLINES
Introduction
Types ofWell or Caissons
Components of aWell Foundation
Shapes ofWells
Depth of aWell Foundation
Forces Acting onWell Foundation
Lateral Stability ofWell Foundation
Construction and Sinking of aWell
INTRODUCTION
What is aWell or Caisson?
• Large size prismatic or cylindrical shells which are
built deep into the ground to support heavy loads.
What is aWell Foundation?
• Large hollow open-ended structure which is generally
built in parts and sunk through ground or water to its
final position, where it forms part of the permanent
foundation.
What is Caisson?
Introduct
ion foundation
Well is the most commonly adopted
foundation for major bridges in India. Since then
many major bridges across wide rivers have been
founded on wells.
Well foundation is preferable to pile foundation
when foundation has to resist large lateral forces.
Uses of Well or Caisson Foundation
Usually very suitable in deep sandy or soft soils.
Specially for Boulder Stratum.
Used to -
Support andTransfer Heavy Loads (Vertical and Horizontal) and Moments
Resist Uplift Forces
Reduce Differential Settlement
Support Heavy Structures including
Caisson
in
tilt
position
•·:
._i
higher side of
caisson
2) Eccentric Loading or Kentledge
Well is normally given the
additional loading called
kentledge in order to have
necessary sinking effort. In
this method, eccentric
loading or kentledge is
applied in higher side so as to
have greater sinking effort.
For proper application of
eccentric loading a platform
with projection on higher
side can be placed over the
top of caisson
The eccentric load is kept on
projected part of platform.
Thus tilt can be rectified.
3) Excavation under Cutting Edge
During sinking process,
filled well will not set or
straighten due to unbroken
stiff strata on its higher
side.
In such situation,
dewatering is preferably
done to loosen stiff strata.
If dewatering is not
possible or unsafe, then
drivers are sent to loosen
the stiff strata.
Sometimes if possible and
safe, an open excavation is
done under the cutting
edge.
4) Regulation of Excavation
1. Circular well,
2. Double D well, Twin
3. circular well, Double
4. octagonal well,
5. Rectangular well.
Shapes of well
foundation
.
typ o welfoundat
es f l ion
Open caisson
or well
Pneumatic
Caisson
.
Foundation:-
Open Caisson.
Box Caisson.
Pneumatic Caisson.
Open Caisson
Box caisson
Pneumatic Caisson
SHAPES OF CAISSON
Basic shapes
Circular Rectangular
Square
Octagonal
Eccentric loading.