This document discusses the central and peripheral nervous systems involved in the control of posture and voluntary movement. It describes how the motor cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem work cooperatively to plan and execute movements. Sensory feedback is integrated to adjust movements via pathways between these structures and the spinal cord. Precise control is achieved through corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts targeting specific muscles, while extrapyramidal tracts maintain muscle tone and coordinate gross movements.
This document discusses the central and peripheral nervous systems involved in the control of posture and voluntary movement. It describes how the motor cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem work cooperatively to plan and execute movements. Sensory feedback is integrated to adjust movements via pathways between these structures and the spinal cord. Precise control is achieved through corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts targeting specific muscles, while extrapyramidal tracts maintain muscle tone and coordinate gross movements.
This document discusses the central and peripheral nervous systems involved in the control of posture and voluntary movement. It describes how the motor cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and brainstem work cooperatively to plan and execute movements. Sensory feedback is integrated to adjust movements via pathways between these structures and the spinal cord. Precise control is achieved through corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts targeting specific muscles, while extrapyramidal tracts maintain muscle tone and coordinate gross movements.
arrange appropriate motion at many different joints at
the same time
adjust the motion by comparing plan with performance
The motor system "learns by doing" and
performance improves with repetition Control of voluntary movement
• The cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum work cooperatively
to plan movements. • Movement executed by the cortex is relayed via the corticospinal tracts and corticobulbar tracts to motor neurons. • The cerebellum provides feedback to adjust and smooth movement • The movements are planned in the cortex as well as in the basal ganglia and the lateral portions of the cerebellar hemispheres • The basal ganglia and cerebellum thalamuspremotor and motor cortex • the motor cortex the corticospinal tracts to the spinal cord and the corresponding corticobulbar tracts to motor neurons in the brain stem. • collaterals from these pathways and a few direct connections from the motor cortex end on brain stem nuclei, which also project to motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord. • Movement sets up alterations in sensory input from the special senses and from muscles, tendons, joints, and the skin. • adjusts and smoothes movement the motor cortex and to the spinocerebellum. • The spinocerebellum projects in turn to the brain stem. • The main brain stem pathways that are concerned with posture and coordination are the rubrospinal, reticulospinal, tectospinal, and vestibulospinal tracts. The motor system • divided into lower and upper motor neurons. • Lower motor neurons refer to the spinal and cranial motor neurons that directly innervate skeletal muscles. • Upper motor neurons are those in the cortex and brain stem that activate the lower motor neurons Control of Axial & Distal Muscles • the brain stem and spinal cord • the trunk and proximal portions of the limbs located medially or ventrally, • the distal portions of the limbs are located laterally. • The axial muscles postural adjustments and gross movements, • the distal limb muscles fine, skilled movements • the ventral corticospinal tract and medial descending brain stem pathways (tectospinal, reticulospinal, and vestibulospinal tracts) adjustments of proximal muscles and posture, • the lateral corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts distal limb muscles and skilled voluntary movements Cortical Control of Voluntary Movement • Pyramidal Tracts – Corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts – Direct pathways from the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord, called Corticospinal tracts – Control small groups of muscles that contract independently of each other • Extrapyramidal Tracts – Indirect connections between the brain and spinal cord – Includes all motor control pathways outside the pyramidal system – Cortex, basal ganglia, medulla oblongata, mid brain, cerebellum – Control large groups of muscles that contract together to maintain posture and balance Pyramidal Tracts
• Axons of neurons in these tracts terminate in
the ventral horn of the spinal cord – Called Upper Motor Neurons • Axons of neurons in these tracts cross over to the opposite side of the CNS in the area of the medulla – Called Medullary Pyramids Corticospinal & Corticobulbar Tracts • corticospinal tracts The axons of neurons from the motor cortex to spinal motor neurons • 80% of these fibers cross the midline in the medullary pyramids lateral corticospinal tract • 20% ventral corticospinal tract, does not cross the midline until it reaches the level of the spinal cord at which it terminates Corticospinal tracts • 31% of the corticospinal tract neurons are from the primary motor cortex (M1; Brodmann's area 4). • 29% of the corticospinal tract neurons are from The premotor cortex and supplementary motor cortex (Brodmann's area 6) • 40% of corticospinal tract neurons originate in the parietal lobe (Brodmann's area 5, 7) and primary somatosensory area (Brodmann's area 3, 1, 2) in the postcentral gyrus. • A view of the human cerebral cortex, showing the motor cortex (Brodmann's area 4) and other areas concerned with control of voluntary movement corticospinal tracts • The corticobulbar tract the fibers that pass from the motor cortex to motor neurons in the trigeminal, facial, and hypoglossal nuclei. • Corticobulbar neurons end on the cranial nerve nuclei or on their antecedent interneurons within the brain stem. • Their axons traverse through the genu of the internal capsule, the cerebral peduncle (medial to corticospinal tract neurons), to descend with corticospinal tract fibers in the pons and medulla. For example: – The brain has received and processed sensory information that causes it to direct the biceps muscles to contract to lift a weight – The brain sends impulses down the corticospinal tracts to the C5-C7 levels of the spinal cord to synapse with the appropriate motor neurons – The nerve impulse is propogated along the ventral roots of the brachial plexus, to the musculocutaneous nerve, which innervates the biceps – The biceps muscle contracts to lift the weight Extrapyramidal Tracts • Motor control pathways outside of the pyramidal system • Indirect connections between the brain and spinal cord • Neurons in these tracts do NOT form synapses with motor neurons • Include two tracts – Reticulospinal tracts – Rubrospinal tracts Extrapyramidal Tracts • Reticulospinal Tracts • The Lateral, Anterior, and Medial Reticulospinal tracts are motor (efferent, descending) – Descend from the reticular formation, which is located in the pons and medulla – Elicits involuntary motor responses • Functions: – Facilitate extensor motor neurons (promotes muscle tone) – Facilitate visceral motor function, and – Control unskilled movements Extrapyramidal Tracts • Rubrospinal tracts – Motor (efferent, descending) tracts descending from the red nucleus (rubro-) of the midbrain – These tracts cross over in the brain stem – Elicits involuntary motor responses • Functions: – Synapse with motor neurons that will transmit impulses to the neuromuscular junction of the muscle that will contract – Result in muscle contractions that maintain muscle tone in the flexor muscles on the opposite side of the body 1. Cerebrum • Primary Motor Cortex – Initiates voluntary movement Motor homonculi: Map of the cerebral cortex corresponding to the part of the body served by a particular region The size of the body part on the homunculus is proportional to the amount of brain dedicated to that body part Motor homunculus. • Subcortical Nuclei – Regions of gray matter within the cerebrum • Includes the Basal Nuclei (Basal Ganglia) – Masses of gray matter scattered deep within the cerebral hemispheres – Components of the basal nuclei include: • The caudate nucleus • The putamen • The globus pallidus – Important role in modifying movement Basal ganglia • Receive input from: – The entire cerebral cortex – Other subcortical nuclei • Such as the subthalamic nucleus of the diencephalon, substantia nigra, and the red nucleus • No direct connections with the motor pathways – Send information to the Primary Motor Cortex through the thalamus Basal ganglia • Complex role in motor control – Important in starting, stopping, and monitoring movements executed by the primary motor cortex – It is particularly involved in slow, sustained, or stereotyped movements • Examples: arm swing during gait, riding a bicycle, or eating • Inhibit antagonistic (unnecessary) movements – Enhances the ability to perform several tasks at once • Impairment results in: – Disturbances in muscle tone and posture – Tremors – Abnormally slow movement 2. Thalamus • Referred to as the “gateway” to the cerebral cortex • Most afferent neurons synapse with at least one of the thalamic nuclei – a relay station for motor impulses from the cerebellum and basal ganglia • The Ventral Lateral Nucleus – Receives motor information from the basal nuclei and cerebellum – Relays information to the motor region of the cerebral cortex 3. Cerebellum
• Located inferior to the forebrain and posterior to
the brainstem • Functions: – Coordination of muscular activity • Skilled movements, posture, and balance – Regulate muscle tone • The cerebellum has no direct connections with muscles 3. Cerebellum Information about voluntary muscle activity from the motor region of the cerebral cortex • Integrates this information and determines how to integrate the sensory information with the motor functions to elicit a coordinated response – Sends its coordination plan to the primary motor cortex – The primary motor cortex then signals the muscles to elicit the desired response 4. Brain Stem • Medial Brain Stem Pathways: • The medial brain stem pathways the ventral corticospinal tract the pontine and medullary reticulospinal, vestibulospinal, and tectospinal tracts • The pontine and medullary reticulospinal tracts project to all spinal levels. maintenance of posture and in modulating muscle tone, especially via an input to - motor neurons. • Pontine reticulospinal neurons are primarily excitatory and medullary reticulospinal neurons are primarily inhibitory. • The tectospinal tract originates in the superior colliculus of the midbrain. to the contralateral cervical spinal cord to control head and eye movements • Lateral Brain Stem Pathway • neurons within the red nucleus of the midbrain cross the midline and project to interneurons in the dorsolateral part of the spinal ventral horn to influence motor neurons that control distal limb muscles. • rubrospinal tract excites flexor motor neurons and inhibits extensor motor neurons. • it may play a role in the posture typical of decorticate rigidity • A) Medial pathways (reticulospinal, vestibulospinal, and tectospinal) terminate in ventromedial area of spinal gray matter and control axial and proximal muscles. • B) Lateral pathway (rubrospinal) terminates in dorsolateral area of spinal gray matter and controls distal muscles. Posture-Regulating Systems • Integration: • Animal experimentation information role of cortical and brain stem mechanisms involved in control of voluntary movement and posture • When the neural axis is transected the activities integrated below the section are cut off, or released, from the control of higher brain centers and often appear to be accentuated.