Errors, Standard Deviation, Data Analysis
Errors, Standard Deviation, Data Analysis
Data analysis
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Errors In Chemical Analyses
Mean
x
i 1
i
x
N
where, xi represents the individual values of x making up a set
of N replicate measurements.
2
Median
3
xm = 19.70
All these terms are functions of the deviation from the mean
di or just the deviation.
di = | xi – x |
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Accuracy
6
Illustration of accuracy and precision 7
Absolute Error
The absolute error of a measurement is the
difference between the measured value and the true
value. The absolute error E in the measurement of
a quantity xi is given by the equation,
E = xi - x t
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Absolute error in nitrogen determination 10
Random or Indeterminate Errors
The errors that affect the precision of
measurement. This type of error causes data to be
scattered more or less symmetrically around a
mean value. Random error in a measurement is
reflected by its precision.
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Gross Errors
They usually occur only occasionally, are often large, and
may cause a result to be either high or low. Gross error leads
to outliers.
This error causes the result differs significantly from the rest
of the results.
Bias Errors
Bias measures the systematic error associated with an
analysis. It has a negative sign if it causes the result to be low
and a positive sign otherwise.
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Effects of Systematic Errors
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Detecting Systematic Errors
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Standard reference materials are substances sold or
Certified by the National Institute of Standard and
Technology (NIST) to contain specified concentrations of
one or more analytes.
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Blank Determinations
Blank determinations are useful for detecting certain types
of constant errors.
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Variance
1. Find the mean of the data.
Hint – mean is the average so add up the
values and divide by the number of items.
2. Subtract the mean from each value – the
result is called the deviation from the mean.
3. Square each deviation of the mean.
4. Find the sum of the squares.
5. Divide the total by the number of items.
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Variance Formula
(x i ) 2
n
Mean is represented by and n is the
number of items.
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Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation shows the variation in data.
If the data is close together, the standard deviation will be
small. If the data is spread out, the standard deviation will
be large.
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The bell curve which represents a normal
distribution of data shows what standard deviation
represents.
i
( x ) 2
i 1
n
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Standard Deviation
Population Standard Deviation:
n
i
( x ) 2
i 1
i
( x ) 2
s i 1
n 1
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Correlation Coefficient (r)
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If the sign is +ve this means the relation is
direct (an increase in one variable is
associated with an increase in the
other variable and a decrease in one variable
is associated with a decrease in the other
variable).
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The value of r ranges between ( -1) and ( +1)
The value of r denotes the strength of the association as
illustrated by the following diagram.
indirect Direct
perfect perfect
correlation correlation
no relation
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Computation of Correlation Coefficient (r)
Covariance
Cov( x, y ) xy x y
1
n
Correlation Coefficient
1
xy x y
r n
x y
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Example:
Pupil A B C D E F G H I J
Marks 20 23 8 29 14 11 11 20 17 17
X/30
Marks 30 35 21 33 33 26 22 31 33 36
Y/40
xy x y
Find Correlation Coefficient 1
r n
x y
Cov( x, y ) xy x y
1
n 1
1
5313 17 *30
5313 17*30
10 10
(6)(5)
21.3
r 0.71
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