Practical Research II

Nature and Inquiry of Research

Research…
French word recherché which means “the act of
searching closely”.

Research
re- “again”
Search – “to look for”
Research…
the process of looking for information once
again.

- Is to answer questions and acquire new

information, whether to solve a problem or to
shed light on confusing facts.
Scientific Methods in Research
1. Empirical approach
2. Observation
3. Question
4. Hypotheses
5. Experiments
6. Analyses
7. Conclusion
8. Replication
 Scientific Methods in Research
1. Empirical approach
- Knowledge is gained through direct
observation and experimentation.
- Only data derived from scientific procedures
are considered factual.
- You disregard your feelings and opinions
about it.
 Scientific Methods in Research
2. Observation
- Your awareness of your environment constitutes your
ideas.
- Relying on awareness alone results to information bias,
decreasing the validity of your findings.
- To increase the veracity of the information you gained from
observation, you have to measure it carefully using an
appropriate instrument.

Ex. Distance between car A and B

- You do not rely on your estimate of distance by vision but
you measure using an instrument to yield a precise data.
 Scientific Methods in Research
3. Question
- Knowledge comes from inquiries that are answerable.
- Must be answered through scientific investigation and
must generate a tangible proof .

Ex.
1. What is the butterfly’s level of well being as it eats
nectar from a flower?
2. Is there an increase in test scores among students
when they attended a tutorial class?
 Scientific Methods in Research
4. Hypotheses
- An educated guess or hypothesis is an attempt to
explain a phenomena.
- It should help you formulate a prediction.
- It must be testable for analysis and
interpretation.

Ex.
1. There is a significant increase of voters when
registration is duly advertised.
 Scientific Methods in Research
5. Experiments
- The given hypothesis should assure testability
in a crafted condition for the accuracy and
reliability of results.
- The process of experimentation itself is a
proof of scientific procedures.
 Scientific Methods in Research
6. Analyses
- For finding to be reliable, the data gathered
are subjected for analysis through statistical
methods.
- Statistical treatment to be employed depends
on the design of the study , type of data, and
given questions.
 Scientific Methods in Research
7. Conclusion
- The process of making inferences involves
concrete data to rule out opinions.
- Must be objective and supported by
meticulous analysis of data.
- Avoid adding more to what is literally
available.
 Scientific Methods in Research
8. Replication
- This means doing the same study once again to a
different set of participants to test the soundness of
the obtained result.
a. Establishment of reliability of findings. – previous data
that were proven will have a stronger belief factor.
b. Discovery of new knowledge. – Generates additional
information.
c. Ascertainment of the generalizability of results. –
Results can be applied to other groups of participants
Goals of Research
1. Description – defined, classified and categorized.

2. Prediction – control of one’s action and behavior

through careful planning derived from given set
of information.

3. Understanding/Explanation – process of
analyzing information to find out the causes
behind the phenomena .
Importance of Research
1. Knowledge is established.

2. Perceptions are corrected.

3. Phenomena are validated.

4. Present solutions are tested for effectivity.

5. Problems are solved.

Constructs and Variables in Research
Constructs are mental abstractions derived from
the combination of concepts, or your mental
representation of the world around you.
In research, they are used interchangeably.

Concepts are more general .

Construct are specific.
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
Concept – age, height, weight, attitude, pollution,
education.

Construct
Age – Young or old
Height – small, average, tall
Weight – light, heavy
Attitude – good, bad
Pollution – land, air, water
Education – grade school, high school, college
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
Variables are constructs that can be understood differently
because of their differences in values.

- can be observed directly and indirectly

Variables based on direct observation – can easily be gauged

by the senses.
Ex. Size, brightness, odor, and taste

Variables based on indirect observations – can be determined

only by using tools or instruments.
Ex. Attitude – attitude survey instrument
Variables must be measured to be able to generate data for analysis and to be used
as additional knowledge
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
Kinds of Variables
1. Independent variables
2. Dependent variables
3. Confounding or extraneous variables
4. Categorical variables
5. Continuous variables
6. Quantitative variables
7. Qualitative variables
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
1. Independent variables
- are manipulated variables that cause a
change in another variable.

Ex. Peace-loving Learning Environment Reduces

Test Anxiety Level of Grade School Students
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
2. Dependent variables
- Are those that are affected by independent
variables.

Ex. Peace-loving Learning Environment Reduces

Test Anxiety Level of Grade School Students
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
3. Confounding or extraneous variables
- Are those variables usually indicated in an
experimental research. They are not included
in the study but in one way or another causes
effect on the dependent variable.

Ex. Peace-loving Learning Environment Reduces

Test Anxiety Level of Grade School Students
- Family Background
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
4. Categorical variables
- Are those that characterize and describe the
quality of data.
- Classified into mutually exclusive categories
and extensive categories
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
Mutually exclusive categories – comprises those
that take on specific values. Often, they do not
follow a sequence.
- They just want to describe the data into the
given options, thus, they are called nominal
variables.

Ex. Civil status – single, married, widowed, or

annulled.
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
Extensive categories – characterizes data using a
definite range. They consider logical order or
rank and are therefore called ordinal
variables.

Ex. Size – small, medium, large.

(when you state the classification of sizes, you
have to say it in order.)
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
5. Continuous variables
- Are those variables in which values are based on a
given interval or continuum.
- These variables rely on numbers for description
Ex.
1. Normal temperature ranges from 36°C to 37°C.
(Description of normal temperature is only within the
given interval)

2. Income – you can just say the amount. It does not

follow an interval, but it falls along a continuum.
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
6. Quantitative variables
- Are those variables that give details regarding
the number of level of something.
- These variables count the frequency of
responses or effect.

Ex. The contestant who will get the highest

number of votes as the most well-liked will be
declared the winner.
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
7. Qualitative variables
- Are those variables that represent kinds or types
of objects.
- They are often categorized into names, labels, or
groups.
- At times, numbers are used as codes to represent
the categorization to be able to measure the
variable and describe its extent.
- Responses such as yes or no; few, many and too
much; and agree or disagree are some examples
of qualitative variables.
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
Variables and Their Level of Measurement

Levels of measurement – are the association of the values that are

linked to a variable.

Why study them???

1. Proper interpretation of data related to the variable.

Ex. Gender (number of male and female participants)

2. Decisions about the proper statistical analysis to be used.

Ex. If the measure is the quantity of males vs. females, you do not
need to test the relationship between them. Rather, you should
just take note of the frequency and the average of males and
females.
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
Four levels of measurement:
1. Nominal Scales
2. Ordinal Scales
3. Interval Scales
4. Ratio Scales
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
1. Nominal scales
- Are just concerned with the names and
categories of responses. They do not intend
to quantify the data. Qualitative and
Categorical variables are examples.

Ex. Nationality, Hair Color

 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
2. Ordinal scales
- Are used for data that intends to be ranked.
- This scale is expressed through sequential and
numerical order and therefore allows a
comparison of degree.
- Qualitative and sometimes quantitative variables
are measured using this scale

Ex. First, Second, and Third

Good, better, and best
 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
3. Interval scales
- Use equal units of measurement and intervals to
know the distance between them more than the
sequence.
- Does not use zero as its base point, though
- Quantitative data are usually measured by
interval scales.

Ex. Temperature, attitude and IQ

 Constructs and Variables in Research
(cont..)
4. Ratio scales
- Are the highest level of measurement.
- Variables will be more accurately measured
because a ratio scale uses zero as its base
point.
- It permits the comparison of both differences
in scores and the relative magnitude of scores.
Ex. Height, weight and age.
Major Approaches in Research
Three major approaches of doing research:

1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative
3. Mixed Methods
 Major Approaches in Research
1. Qualitative approach
- Aims to provide description of characteristic,
kind, and quality of a subject, while interpreting
and attempting to understand an event.
- Uses narrative descriptions from in-depth
interviews.
- Qualitative variables are the data that are
obtained in this approach.
- Mostly done in social sciences studies.
 Major Approaches in Research
Examples:
- Living experiences of male convicts.
- Emotions of people who suffered from the
loss of a loved one.
- Perspective of a politician regarding morality.
 Major Approaches in Research
Advantages:
1. It provides descriptions about the real
experience of the people in the situation being
studied.
2. The researcher can expound more on the
responses of the participants.
3. The participants can elaborate their answers
4. The researcher/s can have a rich explanation
about abstract factors such as customs and
traditions, family roles, and socioeconomic
status for greater understanding.
 Major Approaches in Research
Disadvantages:
1. Due to the nature of qualitative research,
statistical procedure to measure kinds and
qualities are not encouraged because you are
going to deal with verbal rather than numerical.
2. Data are categorized into themes to generate
information.
3. Few and chosen samples are used to participate
in the study.
4. Subjective view leads to certain level of bias.
 Major Approaches in Research
2. Quantitative approach
- Tests hypotheses and make predictions through
measured amounts and ultimately describes an
event by using numerical figures.
- Statistical analysis is therefore applied to
interpret the numbers obtained from the data.
- Objectivity is guaranteed.
 Major Approaches in Research
Advantages:
1. It uses confirmatory scientific method
because it tests hypotheses.
2. By examining numbers taken from the data, a
certain level of bias is removed.
3. The generalizability of findings is high (can be
applied to larger populations).
 Major Approaches in Research
Disadvantages:
1. The focus of the study is limited only to the
object under investigation.
2. The interpretation of results will be based
only on the findings derived from statistical
data.
3. Often, explanations and descriptions are
narrow.
 Major Approaches in Research
3. Mixed method approach
- Involves collection and analysis of data using
both quantitative and qualitative approaches.
- It is able to address the disadvantages of the
two approaches and provide better
understanding of the data.
 Major Approaches in Research
Advantages:
1. This method can make the description easier
because it has both subjective and objective
data.
2. Beneficial to both qualitative and
quantitative studies because its findings will
increase the validity and reliability of the
variables under investigation.
 Major Approaches in Research
Disadvantages:
1. Takes a lot of time for the study to be
completed.
2. Few guidelines in applying both methods
leads to discrepancies in findings which are
difficult to resolve.
Quantitative Approach: An overview
Quantitative methods center on objective
measurements and numerical analysis of data
collected through questionnaires or surveys
and generalizing the results across the groups
of people.

Classify features>>count them>>construct

statistical models
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Main Characteristics of the Quantitative Approach
1. The data are usually gathered using more
structured research instruments.
2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are
representative of the population.
3. The research study can usually be replicated or
repeated, given its high reliability.
4. The researcher has a clearly defined research
question to which objective answers are sought.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
5. All aspects of the study are carefully designed
before data are collected.
6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics.
7. The project can be used to generalize concepts
more widely, predict future results, or investigate
casual relationships.
8. The researcher uses questionnaires or other
forms of research tools to collect numerical data.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Strengths of the Quantitative Approach
1. Quantitative approach involves a greater
number of subjects and enables a broader study,
as well as enhancing the generalizations of the
results.
2. Study results are more objective and accurate.
Usually, to support a certain generalization by
using a summary of data, quantitative research
employs certain procedures on a few variables
to ensure the reliability of data.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
3. Quantitative Research, when the right procedure
is used, can be replicated, as well as analyzed in
comparison with other similar works.
4. You can summarize vast sources of information
and make comparison across categories and over
time.
5. Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a
“distance” from participating subjects and
employing facilitators unknown to them.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Limitations of the Quantitative Approach
1. Quantitative data, while they can test a hypothesis,
may be limited in explaining their context. This is
because the explanation often focuses on numerical
results as basis.
2. The research is often conducted in an artificial setting,
where a certain level of control is exercised. Because
of this, the results may not necessarily reflect the real
life situation presented in the problem. Additionally,
the use of research tools may only reflect the
researcher’s point of view instead of the subject’s.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Types of Quantitative Research
1. Descriptive Research
a. Correlational research
b. Survey
2. Causal-comparative research
3. Experimental research
a. True experimental
b. Quasi-experimental
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Descriptive research
- Involves the collection of data to either test a
hypothesis or describe the variables mentioned in
the study.
- Data, which are typically numeric, are collected
through surveys, interviews or observations.
- Most researches in science and technology,
engineering and social sciences use this type of
quantitative research.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Example:
If you want to describe the process of
photosynthesis, you have to observe the
occurrence of the event, write your
observations, and integrate the data for
description.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Correlational research
- Attempts to determine the level of relation
between two or more quantifiable variables.
- The correlation between two variables does
not mean that one variable causes the other,
but it can be used to predict their values
- To determine the strength of the relationship,
researchers get the correlation coefficient and
the p value.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Example:

• Marriage & Cancer Recovery

Marriage slows cancer deaths.

• Internet use & Depression

Isolation increases with depression.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Causal-comparative research
- Attempts to establish cause-effect
relationships among the variables of the
study.
- In this research, the independent variable
usually involves a demographic (eg. Gender,
race, social status) in which the researcher has
no control of.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
- He or she will test how the independent
variable will cause a significant effect on the
dependent variable, which is the outcome of
the study.
Example:
Low percentage of jobless people (independent
variable) reduces the poverty rate of the
country ( dependent variable).
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Experimental research
- Similar to causal-comparative research, in that
it also measures the effect of the independent
variable (cause) to the dependent variable
(effect); however, the researcher can control
the independent variables in the study,
wherein the participants are randomly
assigned.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Quasi-experimental designs
- An alternative to determine the causes and
effects between two variables that cannot be
subjected to experimental control.
- Most of the time, this design is used on a
naturally given phenomenon and its effect on
the people who are experiencing the
occurrence.
 Quantitative Approach: An overview
Example:
You want to know the effect of a calamity on its
victims.