Unit I - Theory of Metal Cutting
Unit I - Theory of Metal Cutting
INTRODUCTION
• Metal cutting is the process of producing work
piece by removing unwanted material from a block
of metal in the form of chips.
• The process is basically adopted because of the
following reasons.
a) To get higher surface finish.
b) To achieve close tolerance.
c) To get complex geometric shapes.
d) Some times it may be economical to produce a
component by machining process.
4
Material Removal
• Produce a desired shape by removing segments from
an initially oversized piece.
• Often been referred to as machining.
6
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material
to form a chip
• As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
Machining Operations
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Machine Tools
• A machine tool is used to manufacture metal
components of machines through machining, a
process whereby metal is selectively removed to
create a desired shape.
• Ranging from simple to complex pieces, machines
tools can produce parts of different shapes and
sizes.
16
Machine Tools
A power driven machine that performs a machining
operation, including grinding
• Function of machine tool:
▫ Holds work part
▫ Positions tool relative to work
▫ Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that have been
set
• The term is also applied to machines that perform
metal forming operations
17
Milling machine
• A machine tool used to machine solid materials
19
Grinding machine
• A machine tool used for grinding, a process whereby
an abrasive wheel is used as the cutting tool.
20
Planer
• A metal working machine tool that uses straight or
linear movement between the work piece and a
single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool
path.
21
Lathe
• A machine tool that rotates a work piece on its axis
to carry out various operations such as drilling,
turning, boring, facing, threading, grooving and
parting off.
22
Shaper
• A machine tool that uses straight or linear motion
between the work piece and a single-point cutting
tool to machine a linear tool path.
23
Broaching Machine
• A machine tool that uses a toothed tool or a broach
to remove material. The tool can use two types of
broaching, namely rotary and linear.
24
Mechanics of Machining
Plastic deformation in cutting
• The cutting itself is a process of extensive plastic deformation to
form a chip that is removed afterward.
• The basic mechanism of chip formation is essentially the same for all
machining operations.
(a) Chip formation in metal cutting is accompanied by substantial shear and frictional
deformations in the shear plane and along the tool face; (b) Schematic illustration of the
two-dimensional cutting process (c) Cutting with positive and negative rake angles
25
Mechanics of Machining
26
Types of cutting
• Depending on whether the stress and deformation in cutting
occur in a plane (two-dimensional case) or in the space (three-
dimensional case),
• Orthogonal cutting the cutting edge is straight and is set in a
position that is perpendicular to the direction of primary
motion.
• Oblique Cutting the cutting edge is set at an angle
27
Types of cutting
28
Tool Signature
Convenient way to specify
tool angles by use of a
standardized abbreviated
system is known as tool
signature or tool
nomenclature.
• It indicates the angles that a
tool utilizes during the cut.
• It specifies the active angles
of the tool normal to the
cutting edge.
40
Tool signature
• The numerical code that describes all the key
angles of a given cutting tool.
• Machine reference system (or American Standard Association system) (ASA)
• So tool signature or tool designation under machine reference system is
given by
Tool Signature
The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point
cutting tool can be stated in the following order:
Mechanics of Cutting
• Cutting tool has a rake angle of α and a relief or
clearance angle
• Shearing takes place in a shear zone at shear angle Φ
46
Mechanics of Cutting
Chip thickness ratio / Cutting Ratio
• The ratio is related to the two angles by
r cos t1 sin
tan r
1 r sin t 2 cos
Mechanics of Cutting
Shear Strain
• The shear strain that the material undergoes can be
expressed as
e cot tan
AB AO OB
e
OC OC OC
• Large shear strains are associated with low shear
angles or with low or negative rake angles
• Based on the assumption that the shear angle adjusts
itself to minimize the cutting force,
α = friction angle
45 μ = tan α coefficient of friction
2 2
45 (when 0.5 ~ 2)
48
Mechanics of Cutting
Velocities in the Cutting Zone
• Since mass continuity is maintained,
V sin
Vt0 Vctc or Vc Vr Vc
cos
• From Velocity diagram, we can obtained equations from
trigonometric relationships,
V Vs V
c
cos cos sin
• Note also that
t0 Vc
r
tc V
49
• F, N, Fs, and Fn
cannot be directly
measured
• Forces acting on
the tool that can
be measured:
Cutting force Fc and
Thrust force Ft
51
Resultant Forces
Merchant Circle
53
Coefficient of Friction
tan
56
Shear Stress
• Shear stress acting along the shear plane
Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As
sin
• Shear stress = shear strength of work material
during cutting
57
Mechanics of Cutting:
Chip Formation
• The cutting tool produces internal shearing action
in the metal.
• The metal below the cutting edge yields and flows
plastically in the form of chip.
• When the ultimate stress of the metal is exceeded,
separation of metal takes place.
58
Mechanics of Cutting:
Chip Formation – Shear Zone
More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than
shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from
tool-chip friction.
59
Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
• Types of metal chips are commonly observed in practice
• There are 4 main types:
a) Continuous
b) Built-up edge
c) Serrated or segmented
d) Discontinuous
60
Mechanics of Cutting
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Continuous Chips
• Formed with ductile materials
machined at high cutting speeds
and/or high rake angles
• Deformation takes place along a
narrow shear zone called the
(primary shear zone)
• Continuous chips may develop a
secondary shear zone due to high
friction at the tool–chip interface
61
Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Serrated Chips
• Also called segmented or non-
homogeneous chips
• They are semicontinuous
chips with large zones of low
shear strain and small zones
of high shear strain (shear
localization)
• Chips have a sawtooth-like
appearance
63
Mechanics of Cutting:
Chip Breakers
• During machining, long and
continuous chip will affect
machining. It will spoil tool,
work and machine.
• It will also be difficult to
remove metal and also
dangerous.
• The chip should be broken
into small pieces for easy
removal, safety and to
prevent damage to machine
and work.
65
Mechanics of Cutting:
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Chip Breakers
• Chips can also be broken by changing the tool
geometry to control chip flow
66
Cutting Tools
(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and
(b) A helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges.
68
69
Tool Materials
Tool Materials
• To produce quality, a cutting tool must have four
characteristics:
▫ Hardness — hardness and strength at high
temperatures.
▫ Toughness — toughness, so that tools don’t chip or
fracture.
▫ Wear resistance — having acceptable tool life before
needing to be replaced.
▫ Low friction - In order to have a low tool wear and
better surface finish the co-efficient of friction between
the tool and chip must be low.
71
Tool Materials
• The selection of proper tool material depends on the type of
service to which the tool will be subjected.
• No material is superior in all respects, but rather each has
certain characteristics which limit its field of application.
• The principal cutting materials are:
1. Carbon steels. 5. Cemented carbides.
2. Medium alloy steels. 6. Ceramics.
3. High-speed steels. 7. Diamonds.
4. Stellites. 8. Abrasives.
72
Carbon Steels:
• Carbon steels contain carbon in amounts ranging from 0.8 to
1 .5 percent.
• The tools made out of carbon tool steel can machine only
soft materials.
• A disadvantage of carbon tool steels is their comparatively
low-heat and wear-resistance.
• They lose their required hardness at temperatures from
200°C to 250°C.
• Tool steels are commonly used for low speed cutting tools
e.g., hand reamers, taps, etc., or wood working tools.
73
High-Speed Steel
• High-speed steel (HSS) is the general purpose metal for low
and medium cutting speeds owing to its superior hot
hardness and resistance to wear.
• High-speed steels operate at cutting speeds 2 to 3 times
higher than for carbon steels and retain their.
• It is used as popular operations of drilling, tapping, hobbing,
milling, turning etc.
• There are three general types of high-speed steels; high
tungsten, high molybdenum, and high cobalt.
▫ 18-4-1 high-speed steels (T-series)
▫ Molybdenum high-speed-steel (M-series)
▫ Cobalt high-speed steels
75
Stellites
• Stellite is the trade name of a nonferrous cast alloy composed of
cobalt, chromium and tungsten.
• The range of elements in these alloys is 40 to 48 per cent cobalt,
30 to 35 per cent chromium, and 12 to 19 per cent tungsten.
• Stellites preserve hardness up to 1000°C and can be operated
on steel at cutting speeds 2 times higher than for high-speed
steel.
• These materials are not widely used for metal cutting since they
are very brittle, however, they are used extensively in some
non-metal cutting application, such as in rubbers, plastics,
where the loads are gradually applies and the support is firm
and where wear and abrasion are problems.
76
Cemented Carbides
• Cemented carbides comprise Tungsten Carbide powder
in cobalt matrix. These are manufactured by sintering
process.
• It is used for the production of single-point tools, face
milling cutters, twist drills, reamers, etc.
• Cemented carbides have high density (9.5 to 15.1
g/cm3), high hardness, and high wear resistance at high
temperature.
Cemented Carbides
Ceramics
• The ceramic tool materials, also known as cemented
oxides are available in the form of tips.
• Their main constituent is aluminium oxide (Al2O3), and
they are made by compacting process followed by
sintering at high temperature.
• Ceramic tool material has compressive strength ≈500
kg/mm2, and hardness = 89 to 95 RA.
• Ceramics are wear as well as heat resistant (upto about
1200°C). This enables them to machine materials at very
high cutting speed (≈ 3700 m/min in finish turning of
C.I.).
3
79
Polycrystalline Diamonds
• Diamonds are the hardest of all the materials and have
low chemical activity, low value of coefficient of friction,
and a slight tendency for adhesion to metals.
• Their wear resistance and heat resistance (1500°C) is
very high.
• This cutting tool material is brittle and very costly.
• Diamond powder (crushed crystals) is used for polishing
precious stones, making diamond abrasive tools (wheels,
disks, sticks, files, honing stones, laping stones), etc.
3
80
Abrasive
• Abrasive grains in various forms loose, bonded into wheels
and stone, and embedded in papers and cloths-find wide
application in industry.
• They are mainly used for grinding harder materials and
where a superior finish is desired on hardened or unhardened
materials.
• For most grinding operations there are two kinds of abrasives
in general use, namely aluminium oxide (carborundum) and
silicon carbide.
• The aluminium oxide abrasives are used for grinding all high
tensile materials, whereas silicon carbide abrasives are more
suitable for low tensile materials and non-ferrous metals.
82
Wear zones
Gradual wear occurs at three principal location on a
cutting tool.
Three main types of tool wear
are,
• Œcrater wear
• •flank wear
• Žcorner wear
These three wear types are
illustrated in the figure:
88
Tool Wear
• Gradual wear occurs at three principal location on a cutting
tool.
89
Tool Life
• Tool wear is a time dependent process. As cutting proceeds,
the amount of tool wear increases gradually.
• Tool wear must not be allowed to go beyond a certain limit in
order to avoid tool failure.
• Tool life is defined as the time interval for which tool works
satisfactorily between two successive grinding or
resharpening of the tool.
Surface Finish
• The machining processes generate a wide variety of
surface textures. Surface texture consists of the
repetitive and/or random deviations from the ideal
smooth surface.
• These deviations are
▫ Roughness: small, finely spaced surface irregularities
(micro irregularities)
▫ Waviness: surface irregularities of grater spacing
(macro irregularities)
▫ Lay: predominant direction of surface texture
95
SURFACE FINISH
96
SURFACE FINISH
• Three main factors make the surface roughness the
most important of these parameters:
▫F
Œatigue life: the service life of a component under
cyclic stress (fatigue life) is much shorter if the
surface roughness is high
▫•
Bearing properties: a perfectly smooth surface is not a
good bearing because it cannot maintain a lubricating
film.
▫Ž
Wear: high surface roughness will result in more
intensive surface wear in friction.
97
SURFACE FINISH
Roughness control
• Factors, influencing surface roughness in
machining are
▫ Tool geometry (major cutting edge angle and tool
corner radius),
▫ Cutting conditions (cutting velocity and feed), and
▫ Work material properties (hardness).
98
99
CUTTING FLUIDS
• Cutting fluid (coolant) is any liquid or gas that is applied
to the chip and/or cutting tool to improve cutting
performance.
• A very few cutting operations are performed dry, i.e.,
without the application of cutting fluids. Generally, it is
essential that cutting fluids be applied to all machining
operations.
Cutting fluids serve three principle functions:
▫ to remove heat in cutting
▫ to lubricate the chip-tool interface
▫ to wash away chips
100
CUTTING FLUIDS
Functions of cutting fluids:
• To cool the tool and work piece and carry away the
heat generated from cutting zone.It is essential to
maintain a temperature of 200oC for carbon tools
and 600oC for HSS.
• Better surface finish, reduced friction & tool forces
& power consumption during cutting.
• To wash away the chips from tool and keep the
cutting region free and prevents corossion of work
& tool.
• Reduces thermal distortion of work & permits
improved dimensional control.
101
CUTTING FLUIDS
Functions of cutting fluids:
• Cutting fluids improves machinability and
reduces machining forces.
• It helps to keep the freshly machined surface
bright by giving a protective coating against
atmospheric oxygen and thus protect the finished
surface from corrosion.
• In performing the above functions, cutting fluid
enables the max. possible cutting speed to reduce
time & cost of production.
102
MACHINABILITY
Machinability is the term, used to refer the ease,
with which a given work material can be
machined, by the cutting tool, under a given set of
cutting conditions.
It is considerable economic importance for the
production engineer, to know, in advance, the
machinability of a work material, so that he can
plan its processing in an efficient manner.
107
MACHINABILITY
Machinability depends on the following factors:
1. Workpiece - hardness, chemical composition,
tensile properties, strain hardenability, shape,
size, rigidity,
2. Micro-structure
3. Cutting conditions
4. Cutting fluid
5. Tool material
6. Type of Relative motion between tool &
workpiece
108
Machinability Index:
• It is used for comparing machinability of different
materials.
• Machinability index of free cutting steel serves as a
datum, with reference to which other machinability
indexes are compared.
• Machinability index of free cutting steel is taken as
100, for calculating machinability index
• Machinability index (M.I)% = (cutting speed of metal
for 20 minutes tool life / cutting speed of standard
free cutting steel for 20 minutes tool life) * 100 %
110