CNN Unit I

EC 7602
COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
5/20/2019 EC 7602-Communication Networks 1

UNIT –I NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
AND PHYSICAL LAYER
Communication Network Evolution and Recent Trends,

definition of layers, services, interface and protocols, OSI
reference model - layers and duties. TCP/IP reference
model – layers and duties. Physical layer - general
description, characteristics, signaling media types,
topologies, examples physical layer (RS232C, ISDN, ATM,
SONET)
5/20/2019 2 EC 7602-Communication Networks

Network Devices
 Network devices include all the devices that

connect the end-user devices together to allow
them to communicate.
 End-user devices include computers, printers,
scanners, and other devices that provide services
directly to the user.
 End-user devices that provide users with a
connection to the network are also referred to as
hosts
Network Devices
 The host devices can exist without a network, but

without the network the host capabilities are
greatly reduced.
 Host devices are physically connected to the

network media using a network interface card
(NIC).

Networking Devices

Networking Devices-Repeaters
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a
signal.
Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals
distorted by transmission loss due to attenuation.
A repeater does not perform intelligent routing.

Networking Devices-Hubs
Hubs concentrate connections ie, they take a
group of hosts and allow the network to see them
as a single unit.
This is done passively, without any other effect
on the data transmission.
Active hubs not only concentrate hosts, but they
also regenerate signals.

Networking Devices-Bridges
Bridges convert network transmission data
formats as well as perform basic data
transmission management.
Bridges provide connections between LANs.
Bridges also perform a check on the data to
determine whether it should cross the bridge or
not.

Networking Devices-Workgroup
Switches
Workgroup switches add more intelligence to
data transfer management.
Not only can they determine whether data
should remain on a LAN or not, but they can
transfer the data only to the connection that
needs that data.
Another difference between a bridge and switch
is that a switch does not convert data
transmission formats.

Networking Devices-Routers
Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate
multiple connections, convert data
transmission formats, and manage data
transfers.
They can also connect to a WAN, which allows

them to connect LANs that are separated by
great distances.

Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Multipoint Line Configuration

Network Topologies
 Network topology defines the structure of the
network.
 One part of the topology definition is the physical
topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or
media.
 The other part is the logical topology, which
defines how the media is accessed by the hosts
for sending data.

Physical Topologies
Commonly used physical topologies

Physical Topologies-Bus
 A bus topology uses a
single backbone cable
that is terminated at
both ends.
 All the hosts connect
directly to this
backbone.

Physical Topologies-Ring
A ring topology
connects one host to
the next and the last
host to the first.
 This creates a
physical ring of cable

Physical Topologies-Star
A star topology connects

all cables to a central
point of concentration.

Physical Topologies-Extended Star
 An extended star
topology links
individual stars
together by
connecting the hubs
and/or switches.
 This topology can
extend the scope and
coverage of the
network.

Physical Topologies-Hierarchical
 A hierarchical topology
is similar to an
extended star.
However, instead of
linking the hubs
and/or switches
together, the system is
linked to a computer
that controls the traffic
on the topology.

Physical Topologies-Mesh
 A mesh topology is
implemented to provide
as much protection as
possible from
interruption of service.
 Each host has its own
connections to all other
hosts.

Network Protocols
 Protocol suites are collections of protocols that

enable network communication from one host
through the network to another host.
 A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules

and conventions that govern a particular aspect of
how devices on a network communicate.

Network Protocols
Protocols determine the format, timing,
sequencing, and error control in data
communication.

Local-area Networks (LANs)
LANs are designed to:
 Operate within a limited geographic area
 All multi-access to high-bandwidth media
 Control the network privately under local administration
 Provide full-time connectivity to local services
 Connect physically adjacent devices

LANs make it possible for businesses that use
computer technology to locally share files and printers
efficiently, and make internal communications possible.


LANs consist of the Some common LAN
following components: technologies are:
 Computers  Ethernet
 Network interface cards  Token Ring
 Peripheral devices  FDDI
 Networking media
 Network devices

Wide-area Networks (WANs)
WANs interconnect LANs, which then provide
access to computers or file servers in other
locations.
WANs are designed to:

 Operate over a large geographical area
 Allow access over serial interfaces operating at lower

speeds
 Provide full-time and part-time connectivity
 Connect devices separated over wide, even global areas

Some common WAN technologies are:
 Modems
 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Frame Relay
 US (T) and Europe (E) Carrier Series – T1, E1,
T3, E3
 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)


Metropolitan-area Networks (MANs)
 A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan
area such as a city or suburban area.
 A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in
a common geographic area.
 For example, a bank with multiple branches may
utilize a MAN.

Metropolitan-area Networks (MANs)

Storage-area Networks (SANs)
 A SAN is a dedicated, high-performance
network used to move data between servers and
storage resources.
 Because it is a separate, dedicated network, it
avoids any traffic conflict between clients and
servers.
 SANs offer the following features:
 Performance
 Availability
 Scalability
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
A VPN is a service that offers secure, reliable
connectivity over a shared public network
infrastructure such as the Internet.
 VPNs maintain the same security and
management policies as a private network.
They are the most cost-effective method of
establishing a point-to-point connection between
remote users and an enterprise customer's
network.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)
The three main types of VPNs are:

 Access VPNs
 Intranet VPNs
 Extranet VPNs

Access VPNs
 Access VPNs provide remote access to a mobile
worker and small office/home office (SOHO) to
the headquarters of the Intranet or Extranet
over a shared infrastructure.
 Access VPNs use analog, dialup, ISDN, digital

subscriber line (DSL), mobile IP, and cable
technologies to securely connect mobile users

Intranet VPNs
 Intranet VPNs link regional and remote offices

to the headquarters of the internal network over
a shared infrastructure using dedicated
connections.
 Intranet VPNs differ from Extranet VPNs in that

they allow access only to the employees of the
enterprise.

Extranet VPNs
 Extranet VPNs link business partners to the

headquarters of the network over a shared
infrastructure using dedicated connections.
 Extranet VPNs differ from Intranet VPNs in that

they allow access to users outside the enterprise.

Intranet and Extranets
 Intranets are designed to permit access by users
who have access privileges to the internal LAN
of the organization.
 Intranet Web servers differ from public Web
servers in that the public must have the proper
permissions and passwords to access the
Intranet of an organization.

Intranet and Extranets
 Extranets refer to applications and services that
are Intranet based, and use extended, secure
access to external users or enterprises.

Bandwidth
 Bandwidth is defined as the amount of
information that can flow through a network
connection in a given period of time.
 Why bandwidth is important?
 Bandwidth is limited by physics and technology (it
is finite)
 Bandwidth is not free
 Bandwidth requirement are growing at a rapid rate
 Bandwidth is critical to network performance

Bandwidth Analogy

Layered Tasks

OSI Model
To address the problem of network

incompatibility, the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) researched networking
models in order to find a generally applicable set
of rules for all networks.
 Using this research, the ISO created a network

model that helps vendors create networks that
are compatible with other networks.
OSI Model
The Open System Interconnection (OSI)

reference model released in 1984 was the
descriptive network model that the ISO created.
It provided vendors with a set of standards that

ensured greater compatibility and interoperability
among various network technologies.

OSI Model
 The OSI reference model has become the primary
model for network communications.
 Although there are other models in existence,

most network vendors relate their products to the
OSI reference model.

OSI Model
Benefits of the OSI Model:
 Reduces complexity
 Standardizes interfaces
 Facilitates modular engineering
 Ensures interoperable technology
 Accelerates evolution
 Simplifies teaching and learning

OSI Model
The OSI reference model is a framework that is
used to understand how information travels
throughout a network.
The OSI reference model explains how packets

travel through the various layers to another
device on a network, even if the sender and
destination have different types of network
media.

OSI Model

OSI Model

OSI Model
Dividing the network into seven layers
provides the following advantages:
 It breaks network communication into smaller, more
manageable parts.
 It standardizes network components to allow multiple
vendor development and support.
 It allows different types of network hardware and software
to communicate with each other.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers.
 It divides network communication into smaller parts to
make learning it easier to understand.
OSI Model
1.Application Layer is the topmost layer.

2.Transferring of files disturbing the
results to the user is also done in this
layer. Mail services, directory services,
network resource etc are services
provided by application layer.
3.This layer mainly holds application
programs to act upon the received and to
be sent data.

OSI Model
1.Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent

in such a way that the receiver will understand the
information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2.While receiving the data, presentation layer
transforms the data to be ready for the application
layer.
3.Languages(syntax) can be different of the two
communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4.It performs Data compression, Data encryption,
Data conversion etc.
OSI Model
1.Session Layer manages and synchronize the
conversation between two different
applications.2.Transfer of data from source to
destination session layer streams of data are
marked and are resynchronized properly, so that
the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided

OSI Model
Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on
parallel path or single path.
1.Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on
the data are done by this layer
2.It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert
the message into smaller units and passes it on to the Network
layer.
3.Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the
network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so
that they are handled more efficiently by the network layer

OSI Model
Network Layer routes the signal through
different channels from one node to other.
1.It acts as a network controller. It manages
the Subnet traffic.
2.It decides by which route data should take.
3.It divides the outgoing messages into
packets and assembles the incoming packets
into messages for higher levels

OSI Model
Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be
transmitted over the physical layer.
1.The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
2.Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by
this layer.
3.This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames
received and sent respectively. Resending of non-acknowledgement
received frames is also handled by this layer.
4.This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also
manages the Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the
transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.

OSI Model
Physical Layer is the lowest layer of
the OSI Model.
1.It activates, maintains and
deactivates the physical connection.
2.It is responsible for transmission
and reception of the unstructured raw
data over network.
3.Voltages and data rates needed for
transmission is defined in the physical
layer.
4.It converts the digital/analog bits
into electrical signal or optical signals.
5.Data encoding is also done in this
layer.

Physical Layer-[Functions]
 Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of
bits. The bits must be encoded into signals for transmission. It
defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to
signal.
 Data Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is
the number of bits per second.
 Synchronization: It deals with the synchronization of the
transmitter and receiver. The sender and receiver are synchronized
at bit level.
 Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface
between devices and transmission medium.

Physical Layer-[Functions]
 Line Configuration: This layer connects devices with the

medium: Point to Point configuration and Multipoint
configuration.
 Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following
topologies: Mesh, Star, Ring and Bus.
 Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full
Duplex.
 Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.

Physical Layer-[Design issues]
Design Issues with Physical Layer
 The Physical Layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel.
 The design issue has to do with making sure that when one side sends
a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit and not as a 0 bit.
Typical questions here are:
 How many volts should be used to represent a 1 bit and how many
for a 0?
 How many nanoseconds a bit lasts?
 Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both
directions?
 Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both
directions?
 How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is
used for?

Data Link Layer-Functions
 Framing: Frames are the streams of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units. This division of stream of bits is
done by Data Link Layer.
 Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to the
frame in order to define physical address of the sender or receiver
of the frame, if the frames are to be distributed to different systems
on the network.
 Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast
transmitter from running a slow receiver by buffering the extra bit is
provided by flow control. This prevents traffic jam at the receiver
Data Link Layer-Functions
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a trailer at the

end of the frame. Duplication of frames are also prevented by using
this mechanism. Data Link Layers adds mechanism to prevent
duplication of frames.
 Access Control: Protocols of this layer determine which of the
devices has control over the link at any given time, when two or
more devices are connected to the same link.

Design Issues-Data link layer
The issue that arises in the data link

layer(and most of the higher layers as well) is how to keep
a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data.
Some traffic regulation mechanism is often needed to let
the transmitter know how much buffer space the receiver
has at the moment. Frequently, the flow regulation and
the error handling are integrated.

Design Issues-Data link layer
Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link

layer: How to control access to the shared channel. A
special sublayer of the data link layer, the Medium Access
Control(MAC) sublayer, deals with this problem

Functions of network layer
 It translates logical network address into physical address.
Concerned with circuit, message or packet switching.
 Routers and gateways operate in the network layer.
Mechanism is provided by Network Layer for routing the
packets to final destination.
 Connection services are provided including network layer
flow control, network layer error control and packet
sequence control.
 Breaks larger packets into small packets.

Design Issues-Network layer
 A key design issue is determining how packets are
routed from source to destination. Routes can be based
on static tables that are wired into the network and rarely
changed. They can also be highly dynamic, being
determined anew for each packet, to reflect the current
network load.
 If too many packets are present in the subnet at the
same time, they will get into one another's way,
forming bottlenecks.
Design Issues-Network layer
 The control of such congestion also belongs to the
network layer.
 Moreover, the quality of service provided(delay,
transmit time, jitter, etc) is also a network layer issue.
 When a packet has to travel from one network to
another to get to its destination, many problems can
arise

Functions of Transport layer
 Service Point Addressing: Transport Layer header
includes service point address which is port address.
This layer gets the message to the correct process on
the computer unlike Network Layer, which gets each
packet to the correct computer.
 Segmentation and Reassembling: A message is
divided into segments; each segment contains sequence
number, which enables this layer in reassembling the
message.
Message is reassembled correctly upon arrival at the
destination and replaces packets which were lost in
transmission.
Connection Control
 Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is
considered as an independent packet and delivered
to the transport layer at the destination machine.
 Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before
delivering packets, connection is made with
transport layer at the destination machine.
 Flow Control: In this layer, flow control is performed
end to end.
 Error Control: Error Control is performed end to end
in this layer to ensure that the complete message arrives
at the receiving transport layer without any error. Error
Correction is done through retransmission.

Design issues –Transport layer
 Accepting data from Session layer, split it into

segments and send to the network layer.
 Ensure correct delivery of data with efficiency.
 Isolate upper layers from the technological changes.
 Error control and flow control

Functions of session layer
Dialog Control : This layer allows two systems to
start communication with each other in half-duplex
or full-duplex.
Token Management: This layer prevents two
parties from attempting the same critical operation at
the same time.
Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add
checkpoints which are considered as synchronization
points into stream of data.
Design issues-Session layer
 To allow machines to establish sessions between

them in a seamless fashion.
 Provide enhanced services to the user.
 To manage dialog control.
 To provide services such as Token
management and Synchronization

Functions –Presentation layer
Translation
Before being transmitted, information in the form
of characters and numbers should be changed to bit
streams. The presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between encoding methods as different
computers use different encoding methods. It translates
data between the formats the network requires and the
format the computer.

Functions –Presentation layer
Encryption
It carries out encryption at the transmitter and
decryption at the receiver.
Compression
It carries out data compression to reduce the
bandwidth of the data to be transmitted. The primary
role of Data compression is to reduce the number of
bits to be 0transmitted. It is important in transmitting
multimedia such as audio, video, text etc.
Design issues in Presentation layer
•To manage and maintain the Syntax and Semantics of

the information transmitted.
•Encoding data in a standard agreed upon way. Eg:
String, double, date, etc.
•Perform Standard Encoding on wire

Functions –Application layer
 Mail Services: This layer provides the basis for E-mail
forwarding and storage.
 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a
remote host. The application creates software emulation of a
terminal at the remote host. User's computer talks to the
software terminal which in turn talks to the host and vice
versa. Then the remote host believes it is communicating with
one of its own terminals and allows user to log on.

Functions –Application layer
 Directory Services: This layer provides access for global

information about various services.
 File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): It is a
standard mechanism to access files and manages it. Users can
access files in a remote computer and manage it. They can also
retrieve files from a remote computer.

Design Issues –Application layer
 There are commonly reoccurring problems that occur
in the design and implementation of Application Layer
protocols and can be addressed by patterns from
several different pattern languages:
 Pattern Language for Application-level
Communication Protocols
 Service Design Patterns
 Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture
 Pattern-Oriented Software Architecture
OSI-Protocols

OSI-Protocols

OSI Model
In order for data to travel from the source to the
destination, each layer of the OSI model at the
source must communicate with its peer layer at
the destination.
This form of communication is referred to as
peer-to-peer.
During this process, the protocols of each layer
exchange information, called protocol data units
(PDUs).

OSI Model
 Data packets on a network originate at a source
and then travel to a destination.
 Each layer depends on the service function of the
OSI layer below it.
 To provide this service, the lower layer uses
encapsulation to put the PDU from the upper
layer into its data field; then it adds whatever
headers and trailers the layer needs to perform its
function.

OSI Model

OSI Model-Exchange of data

OSI Merits
OSI model distinguishes well between the services,
interfaces and protocols.
Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as
technology changes.
Supports connection oriented services as well as
connectionless service

OSI Demerits
Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
It is just used as a reference model.

Encapsulation
All communications on a network originate at a
source, and are sent to a destination.
The information sent on a network is referred to
as data or data packets.
If one computer (host A) wants to send data to
another computer (host B), the data must first be
packaged through a process called
encapsulation.
Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary
protocol information before network transit.
Encapsulation
Five conversion steps in order to encapsulate data:
i. Build the data – Layers 7 - 5
ii. Package the data for end-to-end transport – Layer 4
iii. Add the network IP address to the header – Layer 3
iv. Add the data link layer header and trailer – Layer 2
v. Convert to bits for transmission – Layer 1

Encapsulation
Destination
Source
Segments
Packets IP Address
MAC
Frames
Address
Bits

TCP/IP Model
 The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created
the TCP/IP reference model, because it wanted to
design a network that could survive any
conditions, including a nuclear war.
 TCP/IP was developed as an open standard.
 This meant that anyone was free to use TCP/IP.

TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and
Internet Protocol. It is the network model used in the
current Internet architecture as well.
Protocols are set of rules which govern every

possible communication over a network. These protocols
describe the movement of data between the source and
destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming
and addressing schemes.
TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model has the following four layers:

Layers –TCP/IP
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
 Lowest layer of the all.
 Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the

packets can be sent over it.
 Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layers –TCP/IP
Layer 2: Internet layer
 Selection of a packet switching network which is based
on a connectionless internetwork layer is called a
internet layer.
 It is the layer which holds the whole architecture
together.
 It helps the packet to travel independently to the
destination.
 Order in which packets are received is different from
the way they are sent.
 IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
Layers –TCP/IP
Layer 3: Transport Layer
 Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting
on the data is done by transport layer.
 The applications can read and write to the transport

layer. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be
sent, in sequence.
 Transport layer adds header information to the data.
 Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small

units so that they are handled more efficient.
Layers-TCP/IP
Layer 4: Application Layer
The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications
that were at the top of the protocol stack. Some of them
were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
 TELNET is a two-way communication protocol
which allows connecting to a remote machine and run
applications on it.
 FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows

File transfer amongst computer users connected over a
network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
Layers-TCP/IP
 SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol,
which is used to transport electronic mail between a
source and destination, directed via a route.
 DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address

into a textual address for Hosts connected over a
network.
 It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
 It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP

Layers-TCP/IP
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a
reliable connection-oriented protocol which handles
byte-stream from source to destination without error
and flow control.
 UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable

connection-less protocol that do not want TCPs,
sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-shot request-
reply kind of service

TCP/IP Model
Although some of the layers in the TCP/IP
model have the same name as layers in the OSI
model, the layers of the two models do not
correspond exactly.

Merits of TCP/IP
 It operates independently.
 It is scalable.
 Client/server architecture.
 Supports a number of routing protocols.
 Can be used to establish a connection between two

computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP
 In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery
of packets.
 The model cannot be used in any other application.
 Replacing protocol is not easy.
 It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and

protocols

OSI Vs TCP/IP Model

OSI Vs TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI Vs TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

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EC 7602

5/20/2019 EC 7602-Communication Networks 1

Communication Network Evolution and Recent Trends,

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 Network devices include all the devices that

 The host devices can exist without a network, but

 Host devices are physically connected to the

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They can also connect to a WAN, which allows

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A star topology connects

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 Protocol suites are collections of protocols that

 A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules

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 All multi-access to high-bandwidth media

 Control the network privately under local administration

 Provide full-time connectivity to local services

 Connect physically adjacent devices

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 Peripheral devices  FDDI

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WANs are designed to:

 Allow access over serial interfaces operating at lower

 Provide full-time and part-time connectivity

 Connect devices separated over wide, even global areas

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The three main types of VPNs are:

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 Access VPNs use analog, dialup, ISDN, digital

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 Intranet VPNs link regional and remote offices

 Intranet VPNs differ from Extranet VPNs in that

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 Extranet VPNs link business partners to the

 Extranet VPNs differ from Intranet VPNs in that

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who have access privileges to the internal LAN