Yarn Modification

Cotton Mercerization
Fibre modifications
Most generic types of fibres can be modified so that
they are better suited for particular uses.
These modifications can be either physical or
chemical.
 Yarn Modification -

The modification of yarn involves a change in the basic structure

In cotton modification, the cellulose forms a derivative which
produces different types of fibre with different properties.
Mercerization is one type of cotton modification
Mercerization adds lustre, improves dying ability and increase
strength.
Physical modifications
 The drawing process during fibre production can be used to alter the
tensile properties of a fibre.
 A high draw ratio increases the tenacity and the initial modulus of the
fibre while decreasing the extension at break.
 Polyamides for reinforcing rubber in tyres need a high tenacity and
high modulus.
 Polyamides for blending with wool in carpets need a lower tenacity
and modulus to be compatible with the wool.

 The appearance of fibres can be altered in a number of ways.

Normally, man-made fibres are lustrous and translucent.
 A small proportion of titanium dioxide (1% or less) in a fibre gives a
matt appearance.
Physical modifications
Melt extruded fibres usually have a circular cross
section, and are cylindrical in shape.
Non-circular spinneret holes are used to produce fibres
with different shapes.
A Y-shaped spinneret hole gives trilobal fibres with a
glittery appearance.
In a carpet, trilobal fibres do not show soiling to the
same extent as circular fibres.
 Chemical modifications
Fibres are often modified chemically to give them particular
characteristics.
The polymers in made-made fibres can be altered by including
other monomers to form copolymers.
A + A + A...→AAA...

Almost all acrylic fibres are copolymers and include an additional

monomer which gives affinity to either acid or basic dyes.
Some acrylics, usually termed modacrylics, include extra
monomers to reduce the flammability of the fibres.
Polyamides can be modified to dye deeper.
 Chemical modifications
Natural fibres can also be modified to improve their properties.
The modifications are often applied as finishing treatments on
fabrics.
Cellulosic fibres can be treated to reduce the creasing of
fabrics in use and during washing; they can also be treated to
reduce their flammability.
Wool can be treated so that fabrics do not felt and shrink when
they are washed by machine.
These processes are discussed in more detail in the papers on
Textile Finishing.
What is Mercerized Cotton?
Mercerized cotton is a special kind of cotton yarn that
is more lustrous than conventional cotton.
It is also stronger, takes dye a little more readily,
makes the yarn more resistant to mildew and reduces
lint.
It also may not shrink or lose its shape as much as
"regular" cotton.
Mercerized Cotton
Mercerization, the process by which mercerized yarn is
made, is named for the British chemist John Mercer, who
developed the process and received a patent for his work in
1851.

Mercer found that adding caustic soda (lye) or sulphuric

acid to cotton made the fibre swell and straighten.
No one was too impressed by that, but in 1890 Horace
Lowe developed a process by which caustic soda was
added to the yarn under high tension, which added the
lustre that mercerized cotton is famous for today.
 Mercerization Processing
Alkaline Treatment
 If cotton is dipped into a strong alkaline solution such as lithium
hydroxide, caustic soda, or potassium hydroxide, the fibres will
swell and shrink.
 If the fibres are placed under tension while in this swollen state and
then rinsed with water, the alkali will be removed and a permanent
silk-like lustre will result.
 Alternatively, after swelling, if the alkali is rinsed off when the
fibre is in its shrunk state, an increase in lustre may not be
discernable, but the fibres will fix in that shrunk state, thus giving
good elasticity to external stress.
The former is known as tension mercerization and is often simply called
Mercerization, while the latter is referred to as Slack Mercerization.
 Due to considerations of cost and efficacy, only caustic soda is used as
the alkali in industry.
Because cotton with long fibres take better to mercerization, PIMA,
EGYPTIAN, & SEA ISLAND cotton are usually chosen for the process
1. The cotton is wetted in water.
2. It is placed in a caustic soda bath.
3. It is fed between two rollers to ensure even distribution and
penetration of the chemicals (caustic soda/sodium hydroxide NaOH).
4. Any excess of the caustic solution is removed.
5. A tenter frame (this holds the fabric under tension) is used to
maintain the specific dimensions of the fabric.
6. The cotton is washed, neutralized, washed again and dried.
The terms "pearl cotton" and "pearle cotton" are also used
to refer to Mercerized cotton, because of the deeply
lustrous appearance of the finished cotton thread.
In addition to having rich color saturation and a
shimmering appearance, mercerized cotton is also much
stronger than conventional cotton thread.
The process shrinks the cotton fibres, tightening and
smoothing the grain of the thread.
Because the cotton is pre-shrunk, mercerized cotton also
tends not to shrink as much as regular cotton, so consumers
can be more confident about the fit of mercerized garments.
The effects of mercerization
 improved lustre
 increased ability to absorb dye
 improved reactions with a variety of chemicals
 improved stability of form
 improved strength/elongation
 improved smoothness
 improved hand
 Appearance is improved through increased lustre, a deepening of
the color and the production of a transparent look, the feel of the
fabric is improved through a resulting soft hand and improved
smoothness, and strength and elongation are also improved,
along with the addition of good stretching ability.
The Effect of Caustic Alkalis on Cotton
In the dyeing of cotton, it is well known that if too
much caustic soda is used in vat dyes and other dyes
which use caustic soda, the dye's ability to be absorbed
will decline, this tendency being especially strong in
weak alkaline vat dyes.
This is thought to be the result of competition for
absorption between the dye and the caustic soda.
Caustic soda has an affinity for cellulose fibres, and
through routine dyeing experience, it is well known
that the removal of caustic soda through rinsing is very
difficult when compared with the removal of acid.
 Yarn modification - Nylon
 Due to its versatility nylon can be modified in a number of ways:
1. The lustre of nylon can be altered by the addition of titanium
dioxide which can produce any lustre from a dull to a bright
finish.
2. A change in texture is brought about by modifying the cross
section of the fibres which can become hollow filaments or
triangular, irregular and trilobal shapes.
 One type of modification which changes texture is adding bulk to
make nylon suitable, for example, for crimping.
 Another type produces a silky, crisp-like finish with reduced pilling,
a sparkle effect and greater resistance to soiling.
 Cross sectional area Examples:

Lobal Oval e.g. bean-shaped solid

hollow
e.g.trilobal
Fibre modification
 One advantage of manufactured fibres is that each step of the
production process can be controlled to modify the parent
fibre.
 These modifications are the result of producers continuing
research (R & D) programmed to address any limitations,
explore the potential of its fibres, and develop properties that
will give greater versatility in the end-uses of the fibres.
 The parent fibre is the fibre in its simplest form and often
called or sold by its generic name-Lyocel.
 Modification may also be sold under a brand or trade name-
Tencel®
Methods/Types of fibre modification
 The following are some fibre modifications:
1. Modification of fibre size & shape: cross-section, hollow
etc.
2. Modification of molecular structure and crystallinity:
high tenacity (rayon)
3. Additives to polymer or fibre solution: fire retardants,
antistatic, antimicrobial etc.
4. Modification of spinning procedures
1. Cross Sections

 Solid Round

 This is the standard cross section for most synthetic fibers.  It has a minimum surface
to volume ratio, but in most cases it is used simply because it is usually less expensive
than modified cross sections.

 Hollow

 The hollow cross section has at least one hollow void enclosed within the fiber and
running the entire length of the fiber.  Hollow fibers are usually round, but need not
be.  They feature:
 ·       higher specific surface areas
 ·         thermal insulation properties due to trapped air
 ·          higher specific rigidity, so long as the hollow void does not collapse
 ·            a delustered (less shiny) appearance.
3. Graft polymerization: Other chemicals can be
added to the fibre molecules which increase
moisture absorbency and reduce the build-up of
static electricity.
This can make the fabric more comfortable to
wear.
4. The addition of antioxidants and light absorbent
chemicals can help reduce damage from UV rays
and sun light.
Fibre modification
 One advantage of manufactured fibres is that each step of the
production process can be controlled to modify the parent
fibre.
 These modifications are the result of producers continuing
research (R & D) programmed to address any limitations,
explore the potential of its fibres, and develop properties that
will give greater versatility in the end-uses of the fibres.
 The parent fibre is the fibre in its simplest form and often
called or sold by its generic name-Lyocel.
 Modification may also be sold under a brand or trade name-
Tencel®
Methods/Types of fibre modification
 The following are some fibre modifications:
1. Modification of fibre size & shape: cross-section, hollow
etc.
2. Modification of molecular structure and crystallinity:
high tenacity (rayon)
3. Additives to polymer or fibre solution: fire retardants,
antistatic, antimicrobial etc.
4. Modification of spinning procedures
 1. Cross Sections
 Solid Round

 This is the standard cross section for most synthetic fibers.  It has a minimum surface to
volume ratio, but in most cases it is used simply because it is usually less expensive
than modified cross sections.

 Hollow

 The hollow cross section has at least one hollow void enclosed within the fiber and
running the entire length of the fiber.  Hollow fibers are usually round, but need not be. 
They feature:
 ·       higher specific surface areas
 ·         thermal insulation properties due to trapped air
 ·          higher specific rigidity, so long as the hollow void does not collapse
 ·            a delustered (less shiny) appearance.
 Trilobal

 A trilobal fiber gives a fiber rigidity and resilience, and the many
reflecting surfaces are efficient at scattering light to hide dirt.  For
these reasons, trilobal fibers are often used in carpets.  The reflective
surfaces can also give the fiber a sparkling appearance.
 Ribbon

 A ribbon cross section provides large flat surfaces for specular reflection of light, so
its appearance is highly sparkling.  It also has a preferred bending direction, which
makes it difficult to card.  If a segmented bi-component cross section (like a pie
wedge) is made with a ribbon cross section, it is exceptionally easy to split into
microfibers.
4DG™ Fibers

 This highly modified cross section was created for

moisture transport, using capillary wicking in its many
grooves.  It is the most effective moisture transport fiber
commercially available.  Its high surface area and deep
grooves also make it highly effective in thermal
insulation, filtration, and in delivering materials from its
grooves.

4DG fibers have a special, highly modified cross section that

provides several deep grooves that run along the length of
each fiber. These channels are useful for achieving a number
of different functions, listed below. 
 Synthetic fibres advance toward new frontiers-
Bi-component fibre extrusion
 In current scenario, textiles not meant only for satisfying the basic needs of
human, but also have to aid and enhance the human performance and comfort.
 This has lead to intense growth of functional textiles known as technical
textiles.
 The most commonly emerging advanced applications include medical textiles,
geotextiles, package textiles, industrial textiles, automotive textiles, protective
textiles etc.
 With the development of new fibres and new manufacturing processes for yarn
and fabrics, new area of applications for various sectors of technical textiles are
in rapid growth.
 Over the years, the applications of manmade fibres have increased
tremendously and that too in diverse fields.
 This has lead to the development of Bi-component fibres, which can be
designed to suit the requirements of end user.
 BICOMPONENT FIBERS

 Bi-component fibers can be defined as "extruding two polymers

from the same spinneret with both polymers contained within the
same filament.
 " A close relative is "co-spun fiber", which is a group of filaments
of different polymers, but a single component per filament, spun
from the same spinneret.
 The term "conjugate fibers" is often used, particularly in Asia, as
synonymous with bi-component fibers
 Objective of producing Bi-component
fibres
 The main objective of producing Bi-component fibers is to
exploit capabilities not existing in either polymer alone.
 By this technique, it is possible to produce fibers of any cross
sectional shape or geometry that can be imagined.
 Bi-component fibers are commonly classified by their fiber
cross-section structures as:
 side-by-side,
 sheath-core,
 islands-in-the-sea and
 citrus fibers or segmented-pie cross-section types.
Production
Bi-component and multi-component fibers are fibers
which are generated during the spinning process from two
or more polymers which have different chemical or
physical characteristics.
Two extruders are used for melting the chips in the
simplest two-component-spinning process.
The polymer melts are separately led to the spin packs or
holes and thereafter spun to filaments.
Diagram illustrating the process of
bi-component extrusion.

Scheme of the bi-component melt

spinning system
Fibre modification
Extruded fibre.
Fibre modification
 The two components can be polymers with complementary
properties.
 For example, one component might provide a strong core,
while the other might provide anti-microbial properties on the
outside of the fibre.
 When one component has highly desirable qualities but is more
expensive than another, it may be possible to reduce the
quantity of the expensive component by producing a bi-
component fibre, which will have the properties of the
expensive component, without the cost of using that
component alone.
CLASSIFICATION OF BICOMPONENT
FIBRES
 Bi-component fibres are sometimes referred as ‘composite’,
‘conjugate’ or ‘hetro’ fibers.
 These can be divided into several groups according to the
component distribution within the fibre cross section area
[chart 1], as given below:
 Side-by-side (s/s) fibers
 Sheath-core (s/c) fibers
 Matrix-fibril Bi-component fibers
 Segmented pie structure
 Polymer blends
 Bi-component fibre: Cross-sections of
side–by- side (s/s)

These fibers contain two components lying side-by-side (Fig.1.).

Generally, these fibers consist of two components divided along the length into two or
more distinct regions.
In most cases, the components must show very good adhesion to each other; otherwise,
the process will result in obtaining of two fibers of different compositions.
Bi-component fibre types:
􀃎Side-by-Side Island-in-the-Sea

Sheath/Core Segmented Pie-Type

USE OF SIDE-BY-SIDE BI-COMPONENT FIBERS

 Side-by-side fibers are generally used as self-crimping fibers.

 Different melting points on the sides of the fiber are taken
advantage of when fibers are used as bonding fibers in
thermally bonded non-woven webs.
Sheath-core (S/C) Fibers

Sheath-core Fiber Production

The most common way of production of sheath-core fibers is a technique
where two polymer liquids are separately led to a position very close to the
spinneret orifices and then extruded in sheath-core form.
Other, rather different techniques to produce sheath-core fibers are coating
of spun fiber by passing through another polymer solution and spinning of
core polymer into a coagulation bath containing aqueous latex of another
polymer.
Sheath-core Bi-component fibers are those fibers where one of the components (core) is
fully surrounded by the second component (sheath)
 Multi-component fibres
Examples:
concentric cover- sheath-
core core
matrix / fibrill
USE OF SHEATH-CORE BI-COMPONENT FIBERS

Besides the sheath-core bi-component fiber used as a

crimping fiber, these fibers are widely used as bonding
fibers in Nonwoven industry.
Other uses of sheath-core fibers derive from
characteristics of the sheath helping to improve the overall
fiber properties.
A sheath-core fiber has been reported whose sheath is
made of a polymer having high absorptive power for
water, thereby having obvious advantages for use in
clothing.
 Matrix-fibril Bi-component Fibers

•These are also called islands-in-the-sea fibers.

•Technically these are complicated structures to make and use.
•In cross section, they are areas of one polymer in a matrix of a second polymer.
•These types of bi-component structure facilitate the generation of micro denier
fibers.
•The ‘islands' are usually a melt spinnable polymer such as nylon & polyester.
•Polystyrene water-soluble polyesters can form the sea or matrix.
USE OF MATRIX-FIBRIL BI-COMPONENT
FIBERS
 A matrix-fibril fiber called "Source" is produced by Allied
Chemicals Ltd.
 The matrix-fibrils is supposed to increase the modulus of the fiber,
to reduce moisture regain, to reduce the dyeability, improve the
texturing ability and give the fiber a unique lustrous appearance.
 The fine fibers produced by this method are used in synthetic
leather, specialty wipes, ultra-high filtration media, artificial
arteries and many other specialized applications.
Bi-component Fiber Capabilities
Bi-component can provide:

» Thermal bonding
» Self bulking
» Very fine fibers
» Unique cross sections
» The functionality of special polymers or additives at
reduced cost
 Surface view of  Epitropic
Cross sectional view of  Epitropic Fibers Fibers

Epitropic Fibre 
Epitropic fibre consists of carbon particles embedded in the
surface of polyester fibre.
When blended with regular fibres, it confers static conductivity
to textile fabrics – usually, although not exclusively,
manufactured using non-woven technology. 
Epitropic fibers have also good anti-bacteria
properties. The growth of micro-organisms can
contribute to a whole range of issues such as the
following:
Infections
Odors
Product Deterioration Food Poisoning
Discoloration 
Applications
Epitropic fibre is incorporated into fabrics to provide
safe discharge of static electricity.
These fabrics are used in applications where the build
up of static charges may cause discomfort or be
potentially hazardous.
Dry filtration
Shoe / Boot linings
Safety work wear 
Carpets 
Upholstery
 Customer Processing 

 The non-woven needle felt process is usually the most appropriate for incorporating Epitropic
fibres into a textile structure. A typical non-woven needle felt process is described in the following
sequential stages;
 Opening and blending – usually up to 5% Epitropic with one or more types of polyester staple
fibre
 Cross lapping
 Tacking to woven scrim material 
 High density needling
 Singeing followed by optional glazing
Segmented pie structure