PREPARED & PRESENTED BY:

JURIS JUSTIN M. TOVERA

DIAGNOSTIC TEST IN
SCIENCE
ITEMS 47 - 60
IN A BREEDING EXPERIMENT USING GRAY AND WHITE MICE OF UNKNOWN
GENOTYPES, THE FOLLOWING RESULTS WERE OBTAINED

If the gray female from Cross IV were d. 25% of the offspring would be gray
mated with the gray male from Cross II, e. 75% of the offspring would be gray
then which of the ff. would most likely
be true?
a. All of the offspring would be gray
b. All of the offspring would be white
c. Half of the offspring would be gray
 ALL OF THE OFFSPRING WOULD BE GRAY

Cross III indicates that white coat color is recessive -> Gray coat color is dominant
Cross IV indicates that there is no white offspring -> Female parent is homozygous dominant
(GG)
Cross II bore 157 children – 118 (approx. 75%) of which are gray, 39 (approx. 25%) of which are
white.
MG Rule of thumb: Heterozygous parents yield offspring with phenotypic ratio 3:1
Hence, the male parent in Cross II is heterozygous (Gg)
GG x Gg = GG, GG, Gg, Gg
If two gray progeny of cross iv mate with each other, what is the probability that any
individual offspring would be gay?

a. 100% d. 25%
b. 75% e. 0%
c. 50%

GG x gg = Gg, Gg, Gg, Gg Gg x Gg = GG, Gg, Gg, gg

MG Rule of thumb: Heterozygous parents = 75% Gray, 25% White
yield offspring with phenotypic ratio 3:1
Blood flows from the heart to the lungs through the pulmonary
artery and returns from the lungs to the heart through the
pulmonary vein. The blood in the pulmonary artery is
a. Higher in Oxygen & lower in Carbon Dioxide content than the blood in the
pulmonary vein
b. Higher in both Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide content than the blood in the
pulmonary vein
c. Equal in Oxygen & lower in Carbon Dioxide content than the blood in the
pulmonary vein
d. Lower in Oxygen & higher in Carbon Dioxide content than the blood in the
pulmonary vein
e. Lower in both Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide content than the blood in the
pulmonary vein
BLOOD VESSELS
“All arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the other
parts of the body, and all veins carry deoxygenated blood from the
parts of the body back to the heart”
• This is only true in systemic blood circulation.
• In the case of pulmonary circulation, pulmonary arteries carry
deoxygenated blood to the lungs while pulmonary veins carry oxygenated
blood back to the heart.
• For Blood Vessels;
• A is for away
• V is for vack
TYPES OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
• Systemic
-heart to and from the other parts of the body (L Ventricle -> Body -> R Atrium)
• Pulmonary
-heart to and from the lungs (R Ventricle -> Lungs -> L Atrium)
• For Heart Chambers
*** A is for accept
*** V is for vavush
• Coronary
-within the heart
• Portal
-between and within organs (mostly made up of capillaries)
In the graph below, the time when the number of living bacteria is increasing at the greatest
rate occurs…

a. during the first 2 hours

b. between the 2nd and 4th hour
c. between the 4th and 6th hour
d. between the 6th and 10th hour
e. between the 11th and 15th hour
 Which organisms comprise the greatest biomass in a
terrestrial ecosystem?

a. Decomposers Biomass
b. Producers • mass of living organisms
in a given area at a given
c. Primary Consumers time
d. Secondary Consumers • amount of organic matter
e. Tertiary Consumers
 BIOMASS
Terrestrial Aquatic
• directly proportional to energy pyramids • inversely proportional to energy pyramids
• producers comprise the most • tertiary consumers comprise the most
 JUSTIFICATION
Terrestrial (P > C) Aquatic (P < C)
• Primary producers are plants • Primary producers are phytoplankton
• Plants live longer than animals • Lower mass, smaller size compared to those of the
zooplankton
• cumulative measurement of mass per area (community
biomass) • Short lifespan
• Decrease in energy turnover • ecosystem does not collapse due to their rapid reproduction
rate
• Higher amount of plants per area than the
organisms who consume them • Reproductive potential and longevity is greater for
predatory fish
• comparative measurement of mass per area (species
biomass) • Marine primary production rate = 48.5 billion tons of
• Terrestrial primary production rate = 56.4 billion total organic carbon per year
tons of total organic carbon per year = 53.8% • Oceanic autotrophs only account for 0.2% of the total
• Less producer biomass leads to collapse of the global biomass
ecosystem • Zoomass is 30x greater than phytomass
• Phytomass is 1000x greater than zoomass (Hartley, 2010)
• animals only consume about 18% of the plants
 THE LIGHT REACTIONS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS SUPPLY
THE CALVIN CYCLE WITH
photons are supplied by the sun*
Calvin Cycle is light-independent**
a. light energy CO2 comes from the atmosphere*
ATP comes from the photophosphorylation of
b. carbon dioxide and adenosine ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
triphosphate (ATP)
Water is delivered by the xylem*
c. water and NADPH NADPH is the reduced form of NADP+
NADP+ + H+ + 2e-  NADPH
d. ATP and NADPH
e. H+ and ATP
Hydrogen ions are formed from the photolysis
of water molecules which plays a role in the
reduction of NADP+ to NADPH.
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS (OVERVIEW)
Chlorophyll Photolysis Photophosphorylation
Photoactivation

• capture of light • splitting of H2O • addition of a

energy by the molecules into phosphate group
chlorophyll that hydrogen ions, to the existing
results in its electrons, and O2 in adenosine
excitation and the the presence of light. diphosphate (ADP)
release of • excited chlorophyll molecule to form
energized gets back to ground adenosine
electrons state triphosphate (ATP)

2 H2O – Chl+ 4H+ + 4e- + O2

Chl + light energy  Chl+ + 2e- Chl+ 2e-  Chl A – P ~ P + P A – P ~ P ~ P

NADP+ + H+ + 2e-  NADPH

CALVIN CYCLE (OVERVIEW)

Carbon Fixation Reduction Regeneration

• Each molecule of 3-PGA
• enzyme RuBP receives an additional • The skeletons of the
carboxylase, RuBisCO, Phosphate group from the remaining G3P are
catalyzes a reaction ATP (which becomes ADP rearranged into
between CO2 and again) to become 1,3- molecules of RuBP
Ribulose biphosphate bisphosphoglycerate. with the help of ATP.
aka RuBP (P-5C-P),
• A pair of electrons from
forming an unstable 6-
NADPH reduces 1,3-
carbon compound
bisphosphoglycerate to
which is immediately
Glyceraldehyde-3-
converted into two 3-
phosphate or G3P.
phosphoglycerate (3-
PGA). • Not all molecules are
released as sugar.
Scientists studied a rattlesnake population from 1972 through 2002. No snakes moved into or
out of the population during this time.

What most likely happened between 1992 and 2002?

a. The birth rate was greater than the death rate
b. The birth rate was less than the death rate
c. The birth rate was equal to the death rate
d. The birth rate and death rate remained constant
e. There is insufficient data
A biologist is studying a species of crab. He hypothesized that if a crab has large pincer claws, then it
will have greater reproductive success. He placed 50 crabs with small pincers and 50 crabs with
large pincers together in an isolated area that closely resembled their natural environment. He
observed several generations of the crabs over the next ten years.

If his hypothesis is correct, which result would be most likely observe?

Note:
In experimental research, we generally aim
A.) the percent of crabs with large pincers would increase to gather absolute observations in order to
B.) the percent of crabs with small pincers would increase determine absolute results.

C.) the percent of crabs with small pincers would decrease

D.) the DNA in crabs with small pincers would mutate in
order to produce larger pincers Implies that the death rate of the crabs with
E.) crabs born with small pincers would develop larger small-pincers is high
pincers and pass this trait to their offspring
The producers in the ecosystem produce 25,000,000 units of
energy per year. How much energy is most likely available to
the organisms in level 3 of an energy pyramid?
*Only 10% of energy is
a. 25 000 units of energy/year transferred from each trophic
b. 250 000 units of energy/year level.
c. 250 000 000 units of
energy/year
d. 2 500 000 units of
energy/year
e. 25 000 000 units of
energy/year
 Robert is conducting breeding experiments with mice. He crossed
two brown mice and found that 25% of their offspring were white.
Which conclusion from this experiment is the most logical?

a. White color is dominant over brown color

b. One of the parent mice is homozygous for the dominant allele
c. The two parent mice have heterozygous genes
d. All of the offspring carry two copies of the recessive allele
e. The white offspring are homozygous for the recessive allele
 Which of the following best describes the pathway of a
protein from its manufacture to its secretion from the cell?

a. Endoplasmic Reticulum > Golgi Complex > Secretory Vesicle

b. Secretory Vesicle > Endoplasmic Reticulum > Golgi Complex
c. Secretory Vesicle > Golgi Complex > Endoplasmic Reticulum
d. Golgi Complex > Endoplasmic Reticulum > Secretory Vesicle
e. Golgi Complex > Secretory Vesicle > Endoplasmic Reticulum

• Proteins are synthesized in the ribosomes

• The rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered with ribosomes
• Golgi bodies modify and package proteins
• Secretory vesicles in the Golgi bodies are responsible for transport of proteins.
If a DNA template has the base sequence 5’ – TAG – 3’ the
corresponding base sequence on an mRNA transcript would
be
• Nucleic acids form complementary base pairs
a. 5’ – ATC – 3’
• The nucleotide sequence that will form on the mRNA
b. 3’ – ATC – 5’ strand during transcription would be A U C
c. 5’ – CTA – 3’ • Adenine pairs with Thymine
• Uracil pairs with Adenine
d. 5’ – AUC – 3’
• Cytosine pairs with Guanine
e. 3’ – AUC – 5’ • Since the DNA template started from the 5’ end, the
resulting mRNA base pair should start from the 3’ end
 Which of the following Nitrogenous Bases can be found in RNA but
not in DNA?

a. Adenine
b. Cytosine
c. Guanine
d. Thymine
e. Uracil
 COLLEGE ENTRANCE TESTS
Biology UPCAT ACET DCAT FEUCET USTET
Bold – intense • Cell (Parts & • Basic • Biomes • Life Cycle • Cell Parts and
Red – light Processes) biological • Cell (Parts & • Biomes Processes
Underlined-Covered • Photosynthesis concepts Processes) • Food Chains • Ecological
Italicized - Implied • Graph analysis fused with • Molecular • Ecological relationships
& analogy biology relationships • Photosynthesis
interpretation • Levels of • Basic Human • Binomial
• Genetics Organization Anatomy Nomenclature
(Mendelian) • Evolution • Cell Parts • Animal
• Diagram • Photosynthesis Adaptations
analysis • Trivial biological • DNA Replication
• Evolution concepts and mutations
• Molecular • Ecological • Levels of
biology relationships Organization
• Mga bahagi ng • Non-Mendelian
katawan ng tao Genetics
(and processes)
• Experiments
 GRAPH & DIAGRAM
ANALYSIS
Population Density | Phylogeny & Cladistics | Ecological Relationships | Experiments
 WATER FLEA POPULATION IN AN ISOLATED ENVIRONMENT
Water Flea Population
6

Carrying Capacity of Environment

5

4
Population (in Hundreds)

Natality Rate = Mortality Rate

1

0
4 HRS 8 HRS 12 HRS 16 HRS 20 HRS 24 HRS 28 HRS 32 HRS 36 HRS 40 HRS
 MONARCH BUTTERFLY POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES
6

4
Population

Months (March ‘17 – March ‘18)

0
MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH
 Phylogenetic Tree
-shows evolutionary relationships between organisms based on similarities &
differences in their physical & genetic makeup.
Time Progression

Clades

Ancestral Species

Ancestral Root
Speciation Event
A scientist is studying a fossilized, limbless, jawless and eel-like organism. It
has a cartilaginous skull and a single, non-vertebral backbone

Based on the description, what group is the fossil most closely related to?
 Trends in Ecological Relationships

Biomass of 3 Marine Species in an Isolated Environment

5

4.5

Which of the following is a:

gram per meter squared

3.5
a. Producer?
3 b. Primary Consumer?
c. Secondary Consumer ?
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
Species A Species B Species C
 Increase in
predators = Prey
MR > NR
Population

Cycle Repeats

Increase in the
prey population
attracts predators

Predators look for

other food sources,
allowing the prey pop.
to increase

Months
Which of the two species is the prey?
 Experiments
• Identifying the topic of the study (based on the methods)
• Identifying the variables
• Evaluating and correcting set-ups & methodologies (based on the hypotheses)
• Choosing the most appropriate hypotheses (based on the set-ups)
• Identifying the parameters to be observed (based on the methods)
• Selecting the most logical conclusions
 A student is studying the effect of competition between two species of insects, A &
B, who eat the same type of food. The experimental design is summarized below.

Which of these would be the best way to set up the fourth aquarium to test the effect of competition on
Species A?
a. Place 10 individuals of A and 10 individuals of B in it, and provide them with 1g of food per day
b. Place 5 individuals of A and 5 individuals of B in it, and provide them with 2g of food per day
c. Place 20 individuals of A in it, and provide them with 2g of food per day
d. Place 20 individuals of B in it, and provide them with 1g of food per day
 ***BIOMES • AQUATIC
• DESERTS • FRESHWATER
• MARINE
• FORESTS • ESTUARIES
• RAINFORESTS
• DECIDUOUS FORESTS
• CHAPARRAL
• TAIGA

• GRASSLANDS
• TEMPERATE
GRASSLANDS
• SAVANNA, STEPPE,
PRAIRIE

• TUNDRA

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
>>LIVING THINGS>> term coined by Robert Hooke in 1655

Cell Theory
-Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann, 1839
• composed of cells -All living things consist of cells
• able to grow and develop -All cells come from pre-existing cells

• maintain and regulate internal environment Homeostasis

Cellular Physiology
• responds to stimuli “sensitivity”
-Passive Transport
• able to reproduce continuity of lineage -Diffusion
-Osmosis
• able to get food and energy -Active Transport
• able to evolve and adapt -Endocytosis
-Exocytosis
Systemic Physiology
-Excretion
nutrition + respiration -Thermoregulation
survival -Chemical regulation
 Maintain and
Regulate Internal #HOMEOSTASIS

Environment
Homeostasis in Cellular Physiology

 ability of cells to maintain a constant internal environment

 primarily attributed to the cell membrane
 allows
hydrophobic molecules, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and small
polar molecules (ie water) to pass through
 sugars
and other “prohibited” molecules should enter or exit the cell
through special membrane proteins
Homeostasis in Cellular Physiology

 Transport of Molecules
 Passive Transport – Diffusion, Osmosis
 movement of molecules from high to low concentration; goes with the
concentration gradient
 does not require energy
 Active Transport – Exocytosis, Endocytosis, Sodium-Potassium pumps
 movement of molecules from low to high concentration; goes against the
concentration gradient
 requires cellular energy (in the form of ATP)
 >>Passive Transport Comparison>>

Diffusion Osmosis

 occurs when molecules of a  occurs when molecules of a

solute (ie sugar) pass through solvent (ie water) pass
a differentially permeable through a selectively
membrane permeable membrane
 Osmosis in Living Cells
Hypotonic Environment Hypertonic Environment Isotonic Environment

 contains low concentration  contains high concentration  contains the same

of solute of solute concentration as the inside
 relatively higher solute  relatively lower solute of the cell
concentration inside the cell concentration inside the cell  no concentration gradient
formed
 water enters the cell  water exits the cell (moving
(moving from high SOLVENT from high SOLVENT
concentration to low concentration to low
SOLVENT concentration) SOLVENT concentration)
 turgor pressure causes  cytoplasm loses water
animal cells to expand and causes shrinkage of animal
burst cell, while in the plant cell,
the cell membrane tears off
 vacuoles of plant cells push
from the rigid cell wall in a
the organelles against the
process called plasmolysis
 Active Transport
Exocytosis Endocytosis
 secretion or expulsion
of substances
 intake of molecules or particles that
cannot ordinarily pass through the cell
 vesicle fuses with cell
membrane, opens membrane
and empties
contents to the
external environment
of the cell. Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
-process in which the cells
-process in which the cells
“drink” fluids that cannot pass
engulf or take in particles which
through the cell membrane
are too large for diffusion
-development of an
-formation of pseudopodia & invagination called pinocytic
phagosome vesicle and formation of pinosome
Homeostasis in Systemic Physiology

 Excretion
 the process by which the body gets rid of its metabolic wastes
 nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid, ammonia), excess salts & water
 principally performed by the kidneys
 filtration of waste from the blood
 maintenance of the pH of the blood
 regulation of sodium-water balance
 marginally performed by the sweat glands

 liver acts on excess amino acids in the blood thru deamination

 the cells in the lining of the large intestine excrete excess salts such as Fe,
Ca, Mg
Homeostasis in Systemic Physiology

• Thermoregulation
-the process by which the body regulates its core internal temperature

Cooling down Warming up

 Perspiration  Vasoconstriction
-secretion of sweat to increase -narrowing of blood vessels, causing
heat loss the delivery of less blood near the
surface of the skin leading to heat
 Vasodilation retention
-widening of blood vessels  Thermogenesis
-delivers more blood, causing more -generation of heat through
heat to be carried by the blood to the deliberate actions (rubbing of palms) or
skin which is “lost” to the air. involuntary actions (shivering of muscles)
Homeostasis in Systemic Physiology

 Chemical Regulation
 production of substances called hormones which help in the activation
and control of body functions and processes
 acting on target cells
 induces synthesis of other substances
 reception of changes by the chemoreceptors in the body signaling
chemoreceptor reflexes
 REPRODUCTION
Cell Division | Modes of Reproduction | Genetics & Heredity | Nature of Genes | DNA
 >>CELL DIVISION>>
Interphase – G1, S, G2
Mitosis – Somatic CD Meiosis – Reproductive CD
 Prophase - sister chromatids & spindles  Prophase I - synapsis
 Metaphase – alignment  Metaphase I – alignment of tetrads
 Anaphase – separation  Anaphase I – separation of tetrads
 Telophase – nuclear envelope reformation  Telophase I – reformation of nuclei

Cytokinesis
 Prophase II
 Metaphase II
 Anaphase II
 Telophase II

Cytokinesis
 >>Modes of Reproduction>>
Asexual Sexual
 production of offspring without the  involves the fusion of gametes through
union of sex cells fertilization
 offspring is the exact copy of its  gametes – sexual reproductive cells
parent
 ovum – female gamete that results
 (Binary) Fission –splitting into two from oogenesis
 Budding – formation of a small  sperm – male gamete that results
reproductive fragment called bud from from spermatogenesis
a larger parent organism
 Spore production – release of spores
which form into an organism under
favorable conditions
 Fragmentation – parent’s body breaks
up into several pieces, which further
develop into new organisms
 ‘Specialized’ Vegetative Reproduction
Genetics & Heredity
 Genetics  Genotype
- understanding how physical, -genetic makeup of the organism
biochemical, and behavioral* traits are
inherited  Phenotype
-physical expression of the genes
 Chromosomes
-genetic material (DNA) tightly coiled
 Homozygous
around structural proteins called histones -two identical alleles
 Gene -purebred
-segment of DNA which contains  Heterozygous
genetic information for a specific trait
(i.e. eye color) -two different alleles
-hybrid
 Allele
-a different variation of the gene
resulting in contrasting effect on a
trait (i.e. blue)
Mendelian Principles of Heredity
 Principle of Dominance
-an allele carrying the dominant trait in a pair may mask the effects of the allele
carrying the recessive trait

 Law of Segregation
-two alleles of a gene separate or segregate during meiosis. Each gamete carries
only one allele of each pair

 Law of Independent Assortment

-the pair of alleles for a given gene segregates into gametes independently of the
pair of alleles for any other gene
 Non-Mendelian Genetics
 Incomplete Dominance
-blending of traits
-leads to the formation of intermediate offspring
Red Flower (RR) x White Flower (rr) = Pink Flower (Rr)

 Co-dominance
-expression of both alleles in distinguishable ways
Black feathered chicken x White feathered chicken = Speckled chick

 Epistasis
-one set of genes overrides another set of genes
*Albinism – the albino gene overrides any gene for coat color
 Non-Mendelian Genetics

 Sex-Limited Traits  Pleiotropy

-only visible in one sex -a gene affects two or more phenotypic
Lactation
traits
Genes for white coat color in dogs also
 Sex-Influenced Traits
affect their hearing
-autosomal traits expressed differently
 Polygenic traits
in the two sexes
-a trait needs to be affected by
Baldness
multiple genes
Eye color, Hair color
The Nature of Genes
 the genetic material of all organisms is made up of nucleic acids
-nucleic acids contain elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, &
Phosphorus
 nucleic acid monomers are called nucleotides
-primarily consists of a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate
group
-nitrogenous bases:
a. Purines: Adenine, Guanine
b. Pyrimidines: Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil (RNA)
>>Types of Nucleic Acid>>
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
 genetic material of most  primarily functions in protein synthesis
organisms  form: single stranded
 form: double helix, antiparallel  nitrogenous bases: A-U, G-C
strands
 sugar: ribose
 nitrogenous bases A-T, C-G
 types:
 sugar: deoxyribose
 messenger RNA
 ribosomal RNA
 transfer RNA
 >>DNA Replication>>
 DNA molecule forms a semiconservative,
exact copy of itself
 Process:
 helicase unwinds DNA double helix
 DNA Polymerase attaches to the area of the
DNA strand “marked” by the primase, which
then brings together nucleotides to form
new DNA strands
 DNA Polymerase only works in the 5’ – 3’
direction -> leading strand
 In the 3’-5’ direction (lagging strand),
primase exerts extra effort as DNA
Polymerase typically forms Okazaki
fragments
 ligase fills in gaps between the Okazaki
fragments
Mutations
-alterations in the genetic material which affects the organism’s behavior and
physiology
a. Chromosomal Abnormalities
 Abnormalities in Chromosomal Number (results from Nondisjunction, ie Trisomy 21)
 Structural Alterations (ie translocation of chromosomal loci)

b. Point Mutations in the DNA

 Substitution
-exchanges one nitrogenous base for another
A T A T G A G A -> A T A T G A T A
 Insertion
-extra base pairs are inserted in a DNA segment
A T A T G A G A -> A T A T C A G A G A
 Mutations
 Deletion
-a segment of DNA is lost or “deleted”
A T A T G A G A -> A G A G A
 Frameshift
-insertions and deletions in a protein-coding DNA segment which makes the sequence
“incomprehensible”
SIDEBAR
The fat cat sat s... -> hef atc ats ats …
In protein synthesis…
Start Codon: AUG The fat cat sat s… -> The tfa tca tsa ts…
Stop Codons: UAA UAG UGA
 NUTRITION &
RESPIRATION
C E L L U L A R M E TA B O L I S M & E N E R G E T I C S
PLANT & ANIMAL NUTRITION
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Cellular Metabolism and
Energetics
• transformation of chemical energy in food molecules into chemical energy
stored in the ATP
• organisms use energy for:
– Synthesis of proteins, fats, & enzymes
– Mechanical Activities (locomotion)
– Chemical Activities (nerve impulses, homeostasis)
– Growth and Repair (cell division, replacement of old tissues, repair of damaged tissues)
Cellular Respiration
• breakdown of food molecules and conversion of food energy into cellular
energy
Aerobic Respiration
– requires oxygen in the process
C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H2O + Energy
Anaerobic Respiration
– cell obtains energy from the breakdown of food molecules in the absence of oxygen
– leads to production of alcohol and less energy
 >>NUTRITION>>
AU TOT RO P H I C H E T E ROT RO P H I C

• Photoautotrophs • Herbivores
-uses sunlight to manufacture their own
food (photosynthesis) • Carnivores
• Chemoautotrophs • Omnivores
-uses chemicals to produce their own food
(chemosynthesis)
• Saphrophytes (Decomposers)
 nitrifying bacteria • Detritivores
 iron bacteria
 sulfur bacteria
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
L I G H T- D E P E N D E N T R E AC T I O N S C A LV I N C Y C L E
• occurs in the thylakoids of the grana in • occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast
chloroplasts • ATP and NADPH is used in the manufacture
• light energy is used for phosphorylating ADP of glucose
into ATP and reducing NADP+ to NADPH, • After manufacture, ATP becomes ADP again
both of which are necessary in the Calvin and NADPH oxidizes into NADP+, which
Cycle return to the thylakoids.
• Process: • Process:
– Chlorophyll Photoactivation – Carbon Fixation
– Photolysis – Reduction
– Photophosphorylation – Regeneration
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
L I G H T- D E P E N D E N T
R E AC T I O N S C A LV I N C Y C L E
• occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast
• ATP and NADPH is used in the manufacture
of glucose
• After manufacture, ATP becomes ADP again
and NADPH oxidizes into NADP+, which
return to the thylakoids.
• Process:
– Carbon Fixation
– Reduction
– Regeneration
 Biological Molecules: An Overview
• Carbohydrates
– made up of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen
– main source of energy for cell metabolism
– base unit: monosaccharide
– bond: glycosidic

• Lipids
– made up of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen
(O << C & H)
– hydrophobic; insoluble or barely soluble in
water
• fats
• phospholipids
• steroids
 Biological Molecules: An Overview
• Proteins
– most diverse biomolecule in terms of
structure & function
– base unit: amino acid
– bond: peptide bond
• enzymatic
• transport
• contractile & motor
• structural
• hormonal
• defensive
• storage
• receptor
• Nucleic Acids
EVOLUTION
 THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
• Abiogenesis
• aka Spontaneous Generation
• life arises from non-living matter
• flies come from wet rags placed in a jar for a long time

• Biogenesis
• life came from pre-existing life

• Biochemical Pre-destination >>>>

• life started from:
• abiotic synthesis of organic molecules (amino acids & nucleotides)
• joining of monomers (amino acids  proteins, nucleotides  nucleic acids)
• self-replication
• development of cellular membranes  protobionts
 THEORIES ON EVOLUTION
• Use and Disuse • Mutation Theory of Evolution >>>
• Jean Baptiste Lamarck • Hugo de Vries
• extensively used body parts develop, • evolution is a discontinuous process
not used body parts deteriorate • changes in organisms are brought
• Natural Selection upon by mutations

• Charles Darwin • Synthetic Theory of Evolution >>>

• struggle for existence  survival of • Neo-Darwinism
the fittest
 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
• Fossil Record • Comparative Embryology
 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
• Comparative Anatomy
 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
• Molecular Biology