Fallacies

SOUND
REASONING
SOUND REASONING
Sound reasoning is used every day.

In fact, we make decisions and
judgements based on sound reasoning,
even in the most insignificant thing we
do for a day. There are two well-
known types of sound reasoning:
deductive reasoning and inductive
reasoning.
SOUND REASONING
Deductive reasoning is from the
general statement to a specific one. For
example, your prior knowledge tells you that
Moslems do not eat pork. Your boss is a
Moslem. You will not take him to restaurant
that serves only lechon because you know
that eating lechon is not allowed in his faith.
SOUND REASONING
Inductive Reasoning is from specific to
general. For instance, because you are sick
with influenza, you just stayed home and
didn’t go to school. You texted your
classmate and asked him to tell your teacher
that you are sick with flu.
Common Logical
Fallacies
Flawed Arguments
Logical Fallacies…
• Flaws in an argument
• Often subtle
• Learning to recognize these will:
• Strengthen your own arguments
• Help you critique other’s arguments
Hasty Generalization
• A generalization based on insufficient or

unrepresented evidence
• Deaths from drug overdoses in Metropolis have doubled

over the last three years. Therefore, more Americans than
ever are dying from drug abuse.
Non Sequitur (Does Not Follow)
• A conclusion that does not follow logically from

preceding statements or that is based on irrelevant
data.
• Mary loves children, so will make an excellent school

teacher.
False Analogy
• The assumption that because two things are alike in

some respects, they are alike in others.
• Failing to tip a waitress is like stealing money out of

somebody's wallet.
“Either… or” Fallacy
• The suggestion that only two alternatives exist when

in fact there are more.
• Either learn how to program a computer, or you won’t be

able to get a decent job after college.
False Cause (Post Hoc, Coincidence
vs. Causality)
• The assumption that because one event follows
another, the first is the cause of the second.
• Since Governor Smith took office, unemployment for

minorities in the state has decreased by seven percent.
Governor Smith should be applauded for reducing
unemployment among minorities.
Circular Reasoning/ Begging the
Question (Unsupported Assertion)
• An argument in which the writer, instead of applying
evidence simply restates the point in other language.
• Students should not be allowed to park in lots now

reserved for faculty because those lots should be for faculty
only.
Bandwagon Appeal (Ad Populum)
• A claim that an idea should be accepted because a

large number of people favor it or believe it to be
true.
• Everyone knows that smoking marijuana is physically

addictive and psychologically harmful.
Argument to the Person (Ad
Hominem)
• An attack on the person proposing an argument
rather than on the argument itself.
• Senator Jones was a conscientious objector during the

Vietnam War, so his proposal to limit military spending has
no merit.
Red Herring
• An argument that focuses on an irrelevant issue to

detract attention from the real issue.
• Reporters are out to get the president, so it’s no wonder we

are hearing rumors about these scandals.
Force and Fear (Ad Baculum)
• The ad baculum fallacy is committed whenever the

proponent of an argument attempts to persuade the
audience to accept the conclusion… by predicting (or
causing) unpleasant consequences if it is not
accepted.
• You ought to vote for Senator Gulch, because if you don’t,

I’ll burn your house down.
Appeal to Celebrity/ Authority
(Ad Verecundiam)
• The ad verecundiam fallacy consists of an appeal to
irrelevant authority, that is, an ‘authority’ who is not
an authority in the field of question (or at least one
we have no reason to believe to be such an
authority).
• Oprah says that she won’t eat beef, therefore you shouldn’t
eat beef.
Pity (Ad Misericordiam)
• Ad Misericordiam is an appeal to accept the truth of a

conclusion out of pity for the arguer or some third
party. Either the arguer (or someone else) is already
an object of pity, or they will become one if the
conclusion is not accepted.
• If I don’t get at least a B in this course my GPA will drop
below 2.0. If that happens I’ll lose my scholarship and
have to quit school, so I ought to get a B in this course.
Non-Disproof
• One sometimes encounters arguments that some

claim should be accepted because they have never
been disproved. The move from ‘not disproved’ to
‘proved’ is invalid.
• No one has ever shown that it is impossible that the stars

rule our lives; therefore, astrology is true.
Undistributed Middle
• An error in deductive reasoning in which the parts of a
premise may, or may not, overlap. The middle term is
undistributed in that all instances of a conclusion are also
instances of the premise.
• Valid argument: All mammals have hair. All whales are
mammals. All whales have hair.
• The middle term is distributed: Whales fits into the categories
of “mammals” and “having hair.”
• Undistributed Middle: All whales have hair. All humans
have hair. All whales are human.
• Undistributed: The middle term (Human) does not fit into
both categories (Whales and Hair).
Ad populum
http://www.cafepress.com
Circular reasoning
Either/Or
•Hasty Generalization Fallacies Covered:
•Argument to the Person (Ad
Hominem)
•Non Sequitur (Does Not Follow)
•Red Herring
•False Analogy
•Force and Fear (Ad Baculum)
•“Either… or” Fallacy
•Appeal to Celebrity/ Authority
•False Cause (Post Hoc, (Ad Verecundiam)
Coincidence vs. Causality)
•Pity (Ad Misericordiam)
•Circular Reasoning/ Begging the
Question (Unsupported Assertion) •Non-Disproof
•Bandwagon Appeal (Ad Populum) •Undistributed Middle

Credits
Annenberg Public Policy Center (2008). Monty Python and the Quest for the
Perfect Fallacy. Retrieved 10-1-08 from
http://www.factchecked.org/LessonPlanDetails.aspx?myId=7.
Hacker, D. (1999). A Writer’s Reference, 4th ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martins.
Mike, H. B. (1999). Language and Logic. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt

Publishing, 1999.
Wheeler, K. (2008). Logical fallacies handlist. Retrieved 10-1-08 from

http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/fallacies_list.html
Many thanks to Shawn Mole for providing much of the condensed research.

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SOUND

Sound reasoning is used every day.

• A generalization based on insufficient or

• Deaths from drug overdoses in Metropolis have doubled

• A conclusion that does not follow logically from

• Mary loves children, so will make an excellent school

• The assumption that because two things are alike in

• Failing to tip a waitress is like stealing money out of

• The suggestion that only two alternatives exist when

• Either learn how to program a computer, or you won’t be

• Since Governor Smith took office, unemployment for

• Students should not be allowed to park in lots now

• A claim that an idea should be accepted because a

• Everyone knows that smoking marijuana is physically

• Senator Jones was a conscientious objector during the

• An argument that focuses on an irrelevant issue to

• Reporters are out to get the president, so it’s no wonder we

• The ad baculum fallacy is committed whenever the

• You ought to vote for Senator Gulch, because if you don’t,

• Ad Misericordiam is an appeal to accept the truth of a

• One sometimes encounters arguments that some

• No one has ever shown that it is impossible that the stars

•Bandwagon Appeal (Ad Populum) •Undistributed Middle

Mike, H. B. (1999). Language and Logic. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt

Wheeler, K. (2008). Logical fallacies handlist. Retrieved 10-1-08 from

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