Climatology

RAR-309
By:- Abhijeet Singh
Understanding Earth From Space
To pinpoint your position on a map of the world you need to work out your co-ordinates, known as latitude
and longitude. Latitude is your position north or south of the Equator. Lines, or parallels, are drawn around the
Earth at intervals. The North Pole is assigned the latitude 90º north and the South Pole latitude 90º south
Lines of longitude, or meridians, are drawn a little differently.
The line of longitude corresponding to 0º, which passes through Greenwich in London, is called the Prime (or
Greenwich) Meridian. Longitude lines run along the Earth’s surface in a north–south direction, and unlike
latitude lines, they divide the globe into segments.
Climatology Terms & Objective
Objective: To develop the knowledge required for understanding the influence of climate on architecture

Terms :
 Weather; It’s the momentary state of environment at a certain location
 Climate: The weather in some location averaged over some long period of time
 Atmosphere: A particular environment or surrounding influence / The mass of air surrounding the Earth
 Space ; Any location outside the Earth's atmosphere
 Zenith: The point above the observer head, the imaginary sphere against which celestial bodies appear.
 Altitude; Angular distance above the horizon (especially of a celestial object)
 Latitude: An imaginary line around the Earth parallel to the equator
 Longitude; The angular distance between a point on any meridian and the prime meridian at Greenwich
 Earth; The 3rd planet from the sun; the planet we live on in global form & it moves around the sun in
elliptical orbit“
 Meridian; An imaginary great circle on the surface of the earth passing through the north and south poles
at right angles to the equator
 Equinox: when the sun crosses the plane of the earth's equator during 2 times of the year
 Equator; An imaginary line around the Earth forming the great circle that is equidistant from the north
and south poles, A circle dividing a sphere into two equal and symmetrical parts
 Ocean; A large body of water constituting a principal part of the hydrosphere
 Topography ; Precise detailed study of the surface features of a region
 Solar radiation; Radiation from sun
 Cyclone; A violent rotating windstorm with a low pressure center; circling counterclockwise in the
northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
 Wind; Air moving from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure
 Breeze; A slight & pleasing wind (usually refreshing) it’s a low pressure wind condition.
 Storm; A violent weather condition with winds 64-72 knots and precipitation and thunder and lightning
 Precipitation; The water in any form falling to earth at a specific place (rain, snow, hail, sleet or mist)
 Solstice; Either of the two times of the year when the sun path is at its greatest distance , marked by shortest/
longest day
 Albedo; The ratio of reflected to incident light
 Bathymetry; Measuring the depths of the oceans
 Relative humidity ; The ratio of the amount of water in the air at a give temperature to the maximum amount it
could hold at that temperature; expressed as a percentage
 R Value; A measure of thermal resistance used in building and construction, with larger values corresponding to
better insulation and less heat loss; it is the inverse of the U value (U-value is the inverse of R-value. U=1/R R-
value is the standard way of describing how effective an insulation is ) it is easier to explain to consumers that R-
19 insulation is better than R-11 rather than telling them U=0.05 insulation is better than U=0.09 The R-value of
a structure made of layers of different materials can be estimated by adding the R-values of the layers. The R-
value of a layer can be estimated by multiplying its thickness in inches by the R-value per inch.
 U Value :A measure of how well a building element transfers heat, with smaller values corresponding to better
insulation and hence less heat loss; it is the rate of energy loss per unit area per degree difference in
temperature, and is equal to the inverse of the R value "a solid brick wall has a U value of about 2, similar to
double glazing; well-insulated modern buildings should have walls with a U value less than 0.3“
 Gale : A strong wind moving 45-90 knots; force 7 to 10 on Beaufort scale
 Knot mile ; A unit of length used in navigation; exactly 1,852 meters; historically based on the distance spanned by
one minute of arc in latitude
Introduction Of Climate
The root of all weather is the Sun, which heats the Earth. The heating is uneven, because of night and day, because
different surfaces (such as rocks and trees) absorb and reflect sunlight in different amounts, and because sunlight
hits the equator more directly than the poles. Uneven heat creates pressure differences, and Wind flows between
areas of high and low pressure High and Low Pressure Because the Earth is warmer at the equator than at the poles,
major differences in pressure occur. Air moves north and south to try to equalize the pressure difference created by
the temperature difference. The Earth rotates under this air, which deflects its direction .

The sun daily rotates towards the east & Solar radiation has a
lower intensity in polar regions because it travels a longer
distance through the atmosphere, and is spread across a larger
surface area. The sun shines 24 hours in the summer, and barely
ever shines at all in the winter
Every one knows that its warmer in summer & colder in winter, why is that? The main factor is temperature due to the
position of the earth in its elliptical orbit around the sun, the 23 .5 degree tilt of the earth’s axis of rotation which
gives rise to seasons in various places and the path of the sun in the sky over the course of the day etc,. The rotation
of the earth on its axis gives rise to Day and night periods and because of the tilt the length of day & night times keeps
varying at different places on earth. If there was no tilt of earth then we would have had equal day & equal night
periods throughout the year. The path of the sun on earth changes after every 6 months for the Northern & Southern
hemispheres. The polar climates have unbearable cold conditions for normal human existence and they have
conditions of continuous day or darkness for almost 6 months.

EARLIER BUILDING CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Not too long ago, building practices were almost entirely a cultural process, based on tradition. Building styles
were developed over time to suit the local climate and building techniques made use of available, often local,
building materials.
 The Elements of Climate
Climatology is the study of the long-term state of the atmosphere, or climate. The long-term state of the
atmosphere is a function of a variety of interacting elements. They are:
 Solar radiation
 Air masses
 Pressure systems (and cyclone belts)
 Ocean Currents
 Topography

 Solar radiation
Solar radiation is probably the most important element of climate. Solar radiation first and foremost heats the
Earth's surface which in turn determines the temperature of the air above. The receipt of solar radiation drives
evaporation, so long as there is water available. Heating of the air determines its stability, which affects cloud
development and precipitation. Unequal heating of the Earth's surface creates pressure gradients that result in
wind. So you see, just about all the characteristics of climate can be traced back to the receipt of solar radiation.
 Air masses
Air masses as an element of climate subsumes the characteristics of temperature, humidity, and stability.
Location relative to source regions of air masses in part determines the variation of the day-to-day weather and
long-term climate of a place. For instance, the stormy climate of the mid latitudes is a product of lying in the
boundary zone of greatly contrasting air masses called the polar front.
 Pressure systems
Pressure systems have a direct impact on the precipitation characteristics of different climate regions. In general,
places dominated by low pressure tend to be moist, while those dominated by high pressure are dry. The
seasonality of precipitation is affected by the seasonal movement of global and regional pressure systems.
Climates located at 10o to 15o of latitude experience a significant wet period when dominated by the
Intertropical Convergence Zone and a dry period when the Subtropical High moves into this region. Likewise, the
climate of Asia is impacted by the annual fluctuation of wind direction due to the monsoon. Pressure dominance
also affects the receipt of solar radiation. Places dominated by high pressure tend to lack cloud cover and hence
receive significant amounts of sunshine, especially in the low latitudes.
 Ocean Currents
Ocean currents greatly affect the temperature and precipitation of a climate. Those climates bordering cold
currents tend to be drier as the cold ocean water helps stabilize the air and inhibit cloud formation and
precipitation. Air traveling over cold ocean currents lose energy to the water and thus moderate the
temperature of nearby coastal locations. Air masses traveling over warm ocean currents promote instability and
precipitation. Additionally, the warm ocean water keeps air temperatures somewhat warmer than locations just
inland from the coast during the winter.
 Topography
Topography affects climate in a variety of ways. The orientation of mountains to the prevailing wind affects
precipitation. Windward slopes, those facing into the wind, experience more precipitation due to orographic
uplift of the air. Leeward sides of mountains are in the rain shadow and thus receive less precipitation. Air
temperatures are affected by slope and orientation as slopes facing into the Sun will be warmer than those
facing away. Temperature also decreases as one moves toward higher elevations. Mountains have nearly the
same affect as latitude does on climate. On tall mountains a zonation of climate occurs as you move towards
higher elevation.
Climate classification system.
The system is based on the concept that native vegetation is the best expression of climate. Thus, climate zone
boundaries have been selected with vegetation distribution in mind. It combines average annual and monthly
temperatures and precipitation, and the seasonality of precipitation.
 GROUP A: Tropical/megathermal climates
 GROUP B: Dry (arid and semiarid) climates ·
 GROUP C: Mild Temperate/mesothermal climates
Maritime climate
Continental/microthermal climate ·
 GROUP D: Polar climates

GROUP D: Polar climates

The polar regions are perpetually covered by snow and ice throughout the year. In these high latitude regions of the
world, the Sun is never high enough in the sky to cause appreciable melting and the temperature rarely rises above
freezing. During the long polar nights, which last six months at the poles, temperatures can fall to extremely low
values. The lowest temperature ever recorded occurred in Antarctica, where a value of -88*C was reported.
The north polar region includes the ice-covered Arctic Ocean, the Greenland continent and much of Northern
Canada and Northern Siberia. In the Southern Hemisphere, the vast mountainous continent of Antarctic is covered
by snow and compacted ice several kilometres thick.
Polar climates tend to be dry because the descending air is cold and lacks significant moisture, precluding the
formation of clouds and snowfall. Some polar regions receive less than 10 inches or 250 millimetres of precipitation
each year, and can be as dry as the hot deserts of the subtropical climate zone. The continental ice sheets of
Greenland and Antarctica have taken many millions of years to form.
GROUP A: Tropical/megathermal climates
 Tropical climates are characterized by constant high temperature (at sea level and low elevations) — all twelve
months of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C (64 °F) or higher. They are subdivided as follows:Tropical
rainforest climate All twelve months have average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). These climates usually
occur within 5– 10° latitude of the equator. In some eastern-coast areas, they may extend to as much as 25° away
from the equator. This climate is dominated by the Doldrums Low Pressure System all year round, and therefore
has no natural seasons.
• Some of the places that have this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g.,
the northwest Pacific coast of South and Central America, from Ecuador to Costa Rica, see for instance, Andagoya,
Colombia), but in many cases the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at Palembang,
Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at Sitiawan, Malaysia).
• A few places with this climate are found at the outer edge of the tropics, almost exclusively in the Southern
Hemisphere; one example is Santos, Brazil.
• Tropical monsoon climate (Am):This type of climate, most common in South America, results from the monsoon
winds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always
occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm, but more
than (100 − [total annual precipitation {mm}/25]).
Examples: Cairns, Queensland, Australia Miami, Florida, United States There is also another scenario
under which some places fit into this category; this is referred to as the trade-wind littoral climate because easterly
winds bring enough precipitation during the "winter" months to prevent the climate from becoming a tropical wet-
and-dry climate. Nassau, Bahamas is included among these locations.

 Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate :These climates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month
having precipitation less than 60 mm and also less than (100 − [total annual precipitation {mm}/25]). Examples:
Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia Caracas, Venezuela Mumbai, India Bangkok, Thailand
Group B :-Dry (arid and semiarid) climates
 These climates are characterized by the fact that actual precipitation is less than a threshold value set equal
to the potential evapo transpiration. The threshold value (in millimeters) is determined as follows:
 If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (desert climate); if it is in
the range of 50%-100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (steppe climate).
 Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations are characterized
by cooler temperatures than encountered elsewhere at comparable latitudes (due to the nearby presence of cold
ocean currents) and frequent fog and low clouds, despite the fact that these places rank among the driest on
earth in terms of actual precipitation received. This climate examples can be found at Lima, Peru, and Walvis Bay,
Namibia.

GROUP C: Mild Temperate/mesothermal climates

Temperate climates are those without extremes of temperature and precipitation (rain and snow). The changes
between summer and winter are generally invigorating without being frustratingly extreme. There are two types
of temperate climate:
• maritime
• continental.
The maritime climate is strongly influenced by the oceans, which maintain fairly steady temperatures across the
seasons. Since the prevailing winds are westerly in the temperate zones, the western edge of continents in these
areas experience most commonly the maritime climate. Such regions include Western Europe, in particular the
UK, and western North America at latitudes between 40 and 60° north.
Continental Climate : This climate is in the polar front zone - the battleground of polar and tropical air masses.
Seasonal changes between summer and winter are very large. Daily temperatures also change often. Abundant
precipitation falls throughout the year. It is increased in the summer season by invading tropical air masses. Cold
winters are caused by polar and arctic masses moving south.
Climates of India

Introduction
 Regions having similar characteristic features of climate are grouped under one climatic zone. According to a
recent code of Bureau of Indian Standards, the country may be divided into five major climatic zones:
• Hot & Dry (mean monthly temperature >30 and relative humidity <55%);
• Warm & Humid (mean monthly temperature >25-30 and relative humidity >55-75%);
• Temperate (mean monthly temperature 25-30 and relative humidity <75%);
• Cold (mean monthly temperature <25 and relative humidity – all values);
• Composite (This applies, when six months or more do not fall within any of the other categories)

 India Climate can be divided into mainly four zones namely, Alpine, Sub tropical, Tropical and Arid. Situated
roughly between 8º N and 37ºN
• Brief Description Buildings in different climatic zones require different passive features to make structures
energy-efficient. Some features that can be adopted in particular zones are listed below

Hot and dry

 The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central part of India; Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Sholapur are
some of the towns that experience this type of climate.
 In such a climate, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot winds. The design criteria
should therefore aim at resisting heat gain by providing shading, reducing exposed area, controlling and
scheduling ventilation, and increasing thermal capacity. The presence of “water bodies” is desirable as they
can help increase the humidity, thereby leading to lower air temperatures. The ground and surrounding
objects emit a lot of heat in the afternoons and evenings. As far as possible, this heat should be avoided by
appropriate design features.
Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:
• Appropriate orientation and shape of building • External surfaces protected by overhangs, fins, and trees
• Insulation of building envelope • Pale colours and glazed china mosaic tiles
• Massive structure • Windows and exhausts
• Air locks, lobbies, balconies, and verandas • Courtyards, wind towers, and arrangement of openings
• Weather stripping and scheduling air changes • Trees, ponds, and evaporative cooling Climatic Zones of
India
Warm and humid
 The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country, such as Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
The main design criteria in the warm and humid region are to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and promote
heat loss by maximizing cross ventilation. Dissipation of humidity is also essential to reduce discomfort.
Moderate
Pune and Bangalore are examples of cities that fall under this climatic zone. The design criteria in the moderate
zone are to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and to promote heat loss by ventilation.
Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:
• Appropriate orientation and shape of building
• Roof insulation and east and west wall insulation
• Walls facing east and west, glass surface protected by overhangs, fins, and trees
• Pale colours and glazed china mosaic tiles
• Windows and exhausts
• Courtyards and arrangement of openings
Cold and Dry
Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. the design criteria are to resist heat loss
by insulation and controlling infiltration. Simultaneously, heat gain needs to be promoted by admitting and
trapping solar radiation within the living space.
Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:
• Appropriate orientation and shape of building
• Use of trees as wind barriers
• Roof insulation, wall insulation, and double glazing
• Thicker walls
• Air locks and lobbies
• Weather stripping
• Darker colours
• Sun spaces, greenhouses and trombe walls (One of the simplest and most elegant solutions to retain solar
heat is the Trombe wall, where solar heat is collected and stored in a wall of high thermal mass, tempering
the heat gain during the day and releasing it at night. )
The Trombe wall is named after a French engineer Félix Trombe in the 1970s particularly well-
suited to sunny climates that have high diurnal (day-night) temperature swings.
Composite
 The composite zone covers the central part of India, such as New Delhi, Kanpur and Allahabad. The design
criteria are more or less the same as for hot and dry climate except that maximizing cross ventilation is
desirable in the monsoon period.
Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are:
• Appropriate orientation and shape of building
• Use of trees as wind barriers
• Roof insulation and wall insulation
• Thicker walls
• Air locks and balconies
• Weather stripping
• Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs, fins, and trees
• Pale colours and glazed china mosaic tiles
• Exhausts
• Courtyards, wind towers, and arrangement of openings
• Trees and ponds for evaporative cooling
• Dehumidifiers and desiccant cooling
Thermal comforts & Effects of climate
• Thermal comfort is affected by heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporative heat loss. Thermal
comfort is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus
maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. It has been long recognized that the sensation of
feeling hot or cold is not just dependent on air temperature alone. Thermal comfort is the condition of mind
that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation
Maintaining this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the
important goals of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design engineers

Effects of thermal discomfort

• Thermal discomfort has been known to lead to sick building syndrome symptoms. The combination of high
temperature and high relative humidity serves to reduce thermal comfort and indoor air quality. The
occurrence of symptoms increased much more with raised indoor temperatures in the winter than in the
summer due to the larger difference created between indoor and outdoor temperatures
• Since there are large variations from person to person in terms of physiological and psychological
satisfaction, it is hard to find an optimal temperature for everyone in a given space. Laboratory and field
data have been collected to define conditions that will be found comfortable for a specified percentage of
occupants. There are six primary factors that directly affect thermal comfort that can be grouped in two
categories: personal factors - because they are characteristics of the occupants - and environmental factors
- which are conditions of the thermal environment. The former are metabolic rate and clothing level, the
latter are air temperature, radiant temperature, air speed and humidity.
• Even if all these factors may vary with time, standards usually refer to a steady state to study thermal
comfort, just allowing limited temperature variations
 Air temperature
• Dry-bulb temperature
• The air temperature is the average temperature of the air surrounding the occupant, with respect to location
and time. According to ASHRAE 55 standard, the spatial average takes into account the ankle, waist and head
levels, which vary for seated or standing occupants Air temperature is measured with a dry-bulb
thermometer and for this reason it is also known as dry-bulb temperature.

Radiant temperature
• Mean radiant temperature
• The radiant temperature is related to the amount of radiant heat transferred from a surface, and it
depends on the emissivity of the material - i.e. the ability to absorb or emit heat. The mean radiant
temperature, defined as the uniform temperature of an imaginary enclosure in which the radiant heat
transfer from the human body is equal to the radiant heat transfer in the actual non-uniform enclosure,
is a key variable for thermal comfort calculations for the human body.
Air speed
• Air speed is defined as the rate of air movement at a point, without regard to direction. According to
ASHRAE 55 standard, it is the average speed of the air to which the body is exposed, with respect to
location and time. The temporal average is the same as the air temperature, while the spatial average is
based on the assumption that the body is exposed to a uniform air speed, according to the SET thermo-
physiological model.
• However, some spaces might provide strongly non uniform air velocity fields and consequent skin heat
losses that cannot be considered uniform. Therefore, the designer shall decide the proper averaging,
especially including air speeds incident on unclothed body parts, that have greater cooling effect and
potential for local discomfort.
Relative humidity
While the human body has sensors within the skin that are fairly efficient at feeling heat and cold, relative
humidity (RH) is harder to detect. The influence of humidity on the perception of an indoor environment can play a
part in the perceived temperature and their thermal comfort. As a matter of fact, relative humidity affects the
evaporation from the skin, which is the prevailing way of heat loss at high temperatures, normally from 26°C
(80°F). At lower RH more sweat is allowed to evaporate from the body, while at higher values it is harder for this
process to happen, because the air's moisture content is already elevated. Therefore, very humid environments
(RH > 70-80%) are usually uncomfortable because the air is close to the saturation level, thus strongly reducing the
possibility of heat loss through evaporation. On the other hand, very dry environments (RH < 20-30%) are also
uncomfortable because of their effect on the mucous membranes. The recommended level of indoor humidity is in
the range of 30-60%, but new methods allow lower and higher humidities, depending on the other factors involved
in thermal comfort
Bio-climatic chart Psychometric chart
A bio-climatic chart is a graphical means of depicting A psychrometric chart is a graph of the
the human comfort region. It shows the association thermodynamic parameters of moist air at a constant
between air speed, thermal energy, dry-bulb pressure, often equated to an elevation relative to
temperature and relative humidity. It applies for a sea level. Dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is that of an air
person in a specific activity and wearing a particular sample, as determined by an ordinary thermometer.
amount of clothes. Wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is that of an air sample
after it has passed through a constant-pressure, Dew
point temperature (DPT) is the temperature at which
a moist air sample at the same pressure would reach
water vapour “saturation.”
Wind Measuring Instruments
• Weather vanes are one of the oldest of all weather instruments, working by swinging around in the wind
to show which direction it is blowing from.
• An Anemometer is commonly used to measure wind speed. Wind speed, or wind velocity, is a
fundamental atmospheric rate. The main instrument used to measure the speed of the wind is an
anemometer. The little cups on this device catch the wind and spin round at different speeds according to
the strength of the wind.
• Wind Socks Another device used to measure the wind is a wind sock. The wind doesn't always blow at the
same speed however, so it is also necessary to look at strong winds

Weather cock, wind socks & Anemometer cups

The Beaufort Scale :
It is also possible to measure the speed of the wind by looking at its effects on the local environment. His scale was
later adapted for use on land, and the same system is still used by many weather stations today.
In the Beaufort Scale, wind strengths are divided into 12 forces:
Force 1Light air Smoke drifts 1-3 mph
Force 2 Light breeze Wind felt on face. Leaves rustle. Weather is usually clear 4-7 mph
Force 3 Gentle breeze Leaves and twigs move. Light flags flap 8-12 mph
Force 4 Moderate breeze Small branches move 13-18 mph
Force 5 Fresh breeze Bushes and small trees sway. Crests are common on sea and known as "white horses" 19-24 mph
Force 6 Strong breeze Wind whistles in electricity and telephone wires. Hard to use umbrellas 25-31 mph
Force 7 Near gale Whole trees sway and it becomes hard to walk in the wind. Sky may be dark and stormy 32-38 mph
Force 8 Gale Now very difficult to walk and tree twigs start to break 39-46 mph
Force 9 Strong gale Tiles and chimneys blown from roofs and branches may snap. Sky may be covered in thick cloud 47-54 mph
Force 10 Storm Trees are uprooted and severe damage is caused to buildings 55-63 mph
Force 11 Violent storm Widespread damage is caused to buildings 64-72 mph
Force 12 Hurricane Severe devastation is caused 73+mph
 Wind Rose Diagram
• A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed and direction are
typically distributed at a particular location over a particular period..
• Presented in a circular format, the modern wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing from particular
directions over a thirty-year period. The length of each "spoke" around the circle is related to the frequency that
the wind blows from a particular direction per unit time. Each concentric circle represents a different frequency,
emanating from zero at the centre to increasing frequencies at the outer circles. A wind rose plot may contain
additional information, in that each spoke is broken down into color-coded bands that show wind speed ranges.
Wind roses typically use 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc., although they may be subdivided
into as many as 32 directions.[3] In terms of angle measurement in degrees, North corresponds to 0°/360°, East to
90°, South to 180° and West to 270°.
• Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport runways, as aircraft typically
perform their best take-offs and landings pointing into the wind.
Kata Thermometer
• A kata thermometer measures the cooling power of the environment; it is used to estimate the personal comfort
of workers (see also "heat stress monitor" and "personal temperature monitor"). A spirit-in-glass thermometer is
usually used: its bulb is heated to above body temperature, removed from the heat source and allowed to cool.
The time taken for the thermometer reading to drop from above to below normal body temperature (e.g., from
38 °C to 35 °C) is used to calculate the cooling power of the atmosphere

Global Thermometer
• A globe thermometer is used to measure radiant heat.
It basically consists of a thermometer with its bulb or
sensor located at the centre of a Matt black copper
bulb. Mean radiant temperature can be calculated from
this result if air temp and velocity are known
Natural ventilation
• The benefits-environmental, economic and health-of ventilating buildings naturally, rather than mechanically,
are becoming increasingly recognized. Approaches can be high-or low-tech but need to be a part of an
integrated design approach. A range of technical barriers like building codes, fire regulations and acoustics also
needs to be taken into account.
• Natural ventilation of buildings is the flow generated by temperature differences and by the wind. The governing
feature of this flow is the exchange between an interior space and the external ambient Natural ventilation,
unlike fan-forced ventilation, uses the natural forces of wind and buoyancy to deliver fresh air into buildings
• Almost all historic buildings were ventilated naturally, although many of these have been compromised by the
addition of partition walls and mechanical systems. With an increased awareness of the cost and environmental
impacts of energy use, natural ventilation has become an increasingly attractive method for reducing energy use
and cost and for providing acceptable indoor environmental quality and maintaining a healthy, comfortable, and
productive indoor climate rather than the more prevailing approach of using mechanical ventilation. In favorable
climates and buildings types, natural ventilation can be used as an alternative to air-conditioning plants, saving
10%-30% of total energy consumption.
• Natural ventilation systems rely on pressure differences to move fresh air through buildings. Pressure differences
can be caused by wind or the buoyancy effect created by temperature differences or differences in humidity. In
either case, the amount of ventilation will depend critically on the size and placement of openings in the
building.
• Wind causes a positive pressure on the windward side and a negative pressure on the leeward side of buildings.
To equalize pressure, fresh air will enter any windward opening and be exhausted from any leeward opening. In
summer, wind is used to supply as much fresh air as possible while in winter, ventilation is normally reduced to
levels sufficient to remove excess moisture and pollutants
Airflow in Natural Ventilation;
Factors Influencing the airflow through openings –Wind speed–Wind pressure–Buoyancy (stack) pressure–
Characteristics of openings –Effective area of multiple openings
Indoor Environmental considerations–Thermal comfort–Indoor air quality
Sun Path Diagram
Sun path refers to the apparent significant seasonal-and-hourly positional changes of the sun (and length of
daylight) as the Earth rotates, and orbits around the sun. The relative position of the sun is a major factor in the
heat gain of buildings and in the performance of solar energy systems.
Accurate location-specific knowledge of sun path and climatic conditions is essential for economic decisions
about solar collector area, orientation, landscaping, summer shading, and the cost-effective use of solar trackers.
Sun path diagrams are a convenient way of representing annual changes in the path of the Sun through the sky
within a single 2D diagram. Their most immediate use is that the solar azimuth and altitude can be read off
directly for any time of the day and day of the year. They also provide a unique summary of solar position that
the designer can refer to when considering shading requirements and design options. The sun’s movement
through the day and through the year is one of the most crucial environmental factors to understand when
designing high performance buildings. If you design your building with careful consideration of the sun’s path,
you can take advantage of strategies such as natural day lighting, passive heating, PV(photovoltic)energy
generation and even natural ventilation. However, if you are not careful, these same opportunities can work
against you, producing glare or overheating.
Factors that causes the change in SUN PATHS
 Depending on the day of the year and the latitude of the observer, it affects where the sun exactly rises or
sets, or how long the sun is above the horizon. As seen from the 2 diagrams above the sun does not
necessarily rise due East or set due west. The location of the sun in the sky is described as having two
components: its daily movement around the horizon and its height above the horizon (altitude).Its altitude
varies with the seasons and location of the observer.
 The sun’s daily path across the sky on or about the 21st day of each month is indicated by means of seven
curved lines. The path is highest in June and the lowest in December. The sun travels across the earth’s sky
along 7 main paths. Each of the other five paths is for two months in the year. For instance, the path on the
March 21 is the same as on September 23.
 We observe the sun in the northern hemisphere with regards to its paths. The tilt of the earth causes the
seasons which constitutes the difference in the sun paths.

The sun paths are different due to factors such as the:

1)Location (local latitude)
2)Rising and setting position (based on the time of the year)
3) Duration of the day and night
The Shading Effect
The sun will always cast a shadow on any object. Only the length,
shape and size of the shadow will change with respect to the sun’s
position in the sky throughout the year. When designing buildings, it is
important to notice the amount of shade cast on the building, or
otherwise how its shadow will affect its surroundings. As mentioned
earlier above, at different latitudes, the sun will travel along different
paths across the sky at different times of the year The suns peculiar
behaviour is a very important factor when designing and constructing
buildings. For locations which are at latitudes away from the equator,
during the summer months the sun will cast relatively short shadows
while during the winter months the sun will cast long shadows of
objects. In the equatorial regions, the suns path remains relatively
unchanged hence the length of the shadows does not vary much
throughout the year.