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Ethical Reports Chapter 1
Ethical Reports Chapter 1
1. Utilitarianism
2. Categorical Imperative
3. Situation Ethics.
UTILITARIANISM
Physical Pleasure
Physical pleasures are sensual indulgences or bodily
gratification that include, among others, sexual intercourse,
eating, drinking, rest, etc. Ill-regulated desires make man
pursue pleasure to the injury of health, even if man knows
that health is greater good. This kind of pleasure is considered
by the utilitarian’s as animalistic or beastly and make up the
lower forms or inferior types of pleasure. Physical pleasure
appeals to peoples lower faculties and persons desiring
nothing, but physical pleasure are considered lowly and less
dignified.
Mental Pleasure
A person’s action has moral value only if his motives for acting is to
do what is right. The motive to do what is right stems a person’s
goodwill. Describing the nature of goodwill. Kant declared, nothing
can possible be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can
be called good without qualifications, except the good will. Kant
explained that the intelligence, temperance, fearlessness and other
qualities of man are good but cannot stand as basis or as a firm
foundation for moral acts since they can be used to promote evil.
However, if a man acts from good will or from the intention to do
what is right, then his acts are good regardless of the consequence.
Kant believed that there exists in man a sense of duty or a moral
sense. Man has innate ideas of the good, of what are to be done and
what should not be done.
The Nature of the Means Employed by the Act
The act must be respectful of human dignity, that is, it should not
use or treat persons as means, instruments or tools for other
ends. Before an act can be considered morally right, it should
respect and treat human beings as ends in themselves. Thus, the
theory of categorical imperative assesses moral acts solely on the
basis of the nature of the motive and the means used by the act,
and not based on its consequences: If the motive and the means
employed by the act are good, then the act becomes good
regardless of its consequences. If telling the truth, for instance, is
good, then the act of telling the truth is good, even when it is
perceived that many will suffer from its consequences. The same
is true of unethical acts, if stealing is unethical, then the act of
stealing is always unethical, even if it is likely to result in the
happiness of many. This explains why it is called categorical
morality: it is fixed, absolute or unconditional form of morality.
The Two Formulations of the Categorical Imperative
Universalizability
Authoritarian Ethics
This is an ethical system which claims that the
goodness or badness of human acts is based on
authority. It is dogmatic and blindly accepted as
infallible, e.g. customs and traditions, religious ethics
and legalistic morality, Investigation is already out of
the question. Principles are accepted and practiced
by people who are either too lazy to think and are
cowards to think and bear the costs and
consequences of thinking for themselves.
Self-Realization Ethics
Focuses on the fulfillment or the maximum realization of
human potentials or capacities. It inspires training and
excellence in thinking, feeling and acting. According to Plato,
the good life begins when man learns how to control his
emotion with his rationally. A good life of reason. For Aristotle,
the good life is the pursuit of excellence- or the life following
the principle of the Golden Mean.
Pragmatism
Pragmatism states that the goodness or badness of human acts
is determined by their practicality, usefulness, feasibility and
economy. It is results-oriented: thus, a modified version of
utilitarianism. This ethical theory was popularized by William
James and is also known as American ethics. It claims that
morality is not categorical but relative: that is, if an acts works
well then, it is good, if not, then it is a bad or immoral.
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism that what is good or bad depends on or is relative
to the norms or standards of a particular culture. Thus, what is good
or bad to a particular culture is applicable only for persons
possessing or living in that culture. No culture must assume the
ultimate measure or standard of what is good and bad.
Communist Ethics
An ethical theory which focuses on equal distribution of goods and
services and of society’s burdens. “Each according to needs (this
concerns the good e.g., education, foods, shelter, health, services,
etc.), each according to ability (this concerns the burden e.g.,
administrative, military, utility works, etc.)”. it preaches universal
brotherhood of man, society without class distinction: a world
without state and nationality, existence without God and religion.
Communist ethics promises the liberation of man from superstation
and ignorance. The good is something that will advance the
realization of communism, and the bad will hinder the fulfillment of
the communist life.
Power Ethics
Power ethics claims that the ultimate good of man is power.
Friedrich Nietzsche, the founder of this moral movement,
argues that the Christian morality is the morality of the weak
and of the slave. This theory focuses on the transvaluation of
morality, where the traditional bad is moral and good. It
encourages man to be a law of his own existences, to be a
superman who is ever willing to bear the burden of his
existence without illusions.
Capitalist Ethics
Capitalist ethics focuses on the distribution of goods based on
individual contributions to the economic pool of society.
Capitalist ethics emphasizes the importance of individual
freedom and the right to accumulate wealth, to possess, and
enjoy private property. Wealth fulfills the desire of man for the
good life.