GENETIC

MANIPULATION: HOST
PLANT
GENETIC MANIPULATION
•  is
a process where the gene for a particular
character is introduced inside the
chromosome of a cell. When the gene for a
particular character is introduced in a plant
cell, a transgenic plant is produced. These
transgenic plants exhibit characters
governed by the newly introduced gene. - It
helps in improving crop variety. It ensures
food security and insect resistant crops. It
also improves the quality and yield of crops.
GENETIC ENGINEERING /
GENETIC MODIFICATION
•  Is the direct manipulation of an organism's
genome using biotechnology. It is a set of
technologies used to change the genetic
makeup of cells, including the transfer of
genes within and across species
boundaries to produce improved or novel
organisms.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS
( GMCs, GM CROPS OR BIOTECH
CROPS
• are plants used in , the of which has
been modified using genetic
engineering techniques. In most
cases the aim is to introduce a new
trait to plant which does not occur
naturally in species.
Examples in food crops:
• resistance to certain pests, diseases,
or environmental
• reduction of spoilage
• resistance to chemical treatments
(e.g. resistance to a herbicide)
• Improving the nutrient profile of the
crop. Plant tissue culture and
deliberate mutations have enabled
humans to alter the makeup of plant
genomes.
PLANT TISSUE CULTURE
•  A collection of techniques used to maintain or
grow plant cells, tissues or organs under sterile
conditions on a nutrient culture medium of
known composition. 
 Techniques
- The production of exact copies of plants that
produce particularly good flowers, fruits, or have
other desirable traits.
- To quickly produce mature plants.
- Production of multiples of plants in the absence
of seeds or necessary pollinators to produce seeds.
• The regeneration of whole plants from plant cells
that have been genetically modified.
• The production of plants in sterile containers that
allows them to be moved with greatly reduced
chances of transmitting diseases, pests, and
pathogens.
• The production of plants from seeds that
otherwise have very low chances of germinating
and growing, i.e.: orchids and Nepenthes. 
• To clean particular plants of viral and other
infections and to quickly multiply these plants as
'cleaned stock' for horticulture and agriculture.
• The first genetically modified crop plant was
produced in 1982, an antibiotic-resistant tobacco
plant.
Application
• A plant breeder may use tissue culture to
screen cells rather than plants for advantageous
characters, e.g. herbicide resistance/tolerance.
• Production of identical sterile hybrid species
can be obtained.
Plant Genetic Systems (PGS)
Best known for its work in the development of
insect- resistant transgenic plants. The focus of its
activities is the genetic engineering of plants First
company to genetically engineer insect-resistant
(tobacco) plants by incorporating genes that
produced insecticidal proteins from Bacillus
thuringiensis.
• DNA transfers naturally between
organisms. The introduction of foreign
germplasm into crops has been achieved
by traditional crop breeders by
overcoming species barriers.
• A hybrid cereal grain was created in 1875,
by crossing wheat and rye. Since then
important traits including dwarfing genes
and rust resistance have been introduced.
Plant tissue culture and deliberate
mutations have enabled humans to alter
the makeup of plant genomes.
• The first genetically modified crop plant
was produced in 1982, an antibiotic
resistant tobacco plant. The first field
trials occurred in France and the USA in
1986, when tobacco plants were
engineered for herbicide resistance. In
1987, Plant Genetic Systems, founded by
Marc Van Montagu and Jeff Schell, was the
first company to genetically engineered
insect resistant (tobacco) plants by
incorporating genes that produced
insecticidal proteins from Bacillus
Thuringensis.
• Genetically engineered crops have
genes added or removed using
genetic engineering techniques,
originally including gene guns,
electroporation, microinjection,
agrobacterium, crispr and talen.
GENE GUN
•  “(a.k.a. biolistic) shoot”
(direct high energy
particles or radiations
against) target genes
into plant cells. It is the
common method. DNA is
bound to tiny particles of
gold or tungsten which
are subsequently shot
into plant tissue or
single plant cells under
high pressure.
ELECTROPORATION
•  Is used when the
plant tissue does
not contain cell
walls. In this
technique, “DNA
enters the plant
cells miniature
pores which are
temporarily caused
by electric pulses.
MICRO INJECTION

• Directly injects the

gene into the DNA.
AGROBACTERIUM
TUMEFACIENS
•  Agrobacteria are natural
plant parasites, and their
natural ability to transfer
genes provides another
engineering method. To
create a suitable
environment for
themselves, these
Agrobacteria insert their
genes into plant hosts,
resulting in a proliferation
of modified plant cells
near the soil level.
• Clustered regularly-
interspaced short
palindromic repeats are
segments of prokaryotic
DNA containing short
repetitions of base
sequences. CRISPR has
enormous potential
application, including
altering the germline of
humans, animals, and
other organisms, and
manipulating the genes.
TALEN
• Transcription activator-
like effector nuclease has
TALE proteins that
composed of a central
domain responsible for
DNA binding, a nuclear
localization signal, and a
domain that activates
the target gene
transcription. The
capability of this proteins
to bind to DNA was first
described in 2007.
TYPE OF MODIFICATIONS
Transgenic Plants
• Transgenic Plants
have genes
inserted into them
that are derived
from another
species. The
inserted genes can
come from species
within the same
kingdom (plant to
plant).
Cisgenic Plants
• Cisgenic Plants
are made using
genes found
within the same
species or closely
related one,
where
conventional plant
breeding occur.
Subgenic
• Subgenic In 2014, Chinese
researcher Gao Caixia filed
patents on the creation of
a strain of wheat that is a
resistant to powdery
mildew. The strain lacks
genes that encode proteins
that repress defenses
against mildew. Gao used
gene editing tools without
adding or changing any
other genes. No field trials
were immediately planned.
• Yields increased to 9% for herbicide
tolerance and 25% for insect resistance.
Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69%
higher profits than those who did not. The
review found that the GM crops help
farmers in developing countries, increasing
yields by 14 percentage points. GM crops
grown today, or under development, have
been modified with various traits.
TRAITS

• Improved shelf life

• Disease resistance
• Stress resistance
• Herbicide resistance
• Pest resistance
• Production of useful goods such as biofuel or
drugs •
• Ability to absorb toxins and for use in
bioremediation of pollution
GENETICALLY MODIFIED
CROPS

Corn
• Tolerance of herbicides glyphosate glufosinate, and 2, 4-D. Insect resistance.
Added enzyme, alpha amylase that converts starch into sugar to facilitate
ethanol production. Viral resistance.
• Genes, some from BT, added
• Rice
• Enriched with beta-carotene (a source of vitamin A)
• Genes from maize and a common soil microorganism
• Soybeans
• Tolerance of glyphosate or glufosinate Reduced saturated fats (high oleic acid);
• Kills susceptible insect pests Viral resistance
• Herbicide resistant gene taken from bacteria added Knocked out native genes
that catlyze saturation
• Sugarcane
• Pesticide tolerance High sucrose content
• Genes added
Pest Resistance Insects
• Tobacco
• Corn
• Rice Viruses
• Papaya -
VIRUSES
Papaya Ringspot Virus
• Potato -Potato Leaf Roll Virus
• Corn -Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus
Host Plant Resistant
• Plant species which are fed upon by an insect are
called host plants. The inability of insect to attack
a non-host plant is termed immunity.
• A host plant which shows lesser damage is called
resistant and a host plant showing more damage
is called susceptible.
• Host plant resistance is any inherited
characteristic of a host that lessens the effect of
attack. Plant resistance to insects is ‘a quality that
enables a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover from
the effect of oviposition or feeding that would
cause damage to other genotypes of the same
species under similar environmental conditions’
Painter1957- defined plant resistance as ‘the
relative amount of heritable qualities possessed
by the plant that influenced the ultimate degree of
damage done by the insects’.
Kogan1994- Resistance to insects is ‘the
inheritable property that enables a plant to
restrain the growth of insect populations or to
recover from injury caused by the populations
’
Character resistance -heritable, relative,
measurable, and variable’.
1782-Underhill’ variety of wheat was found to be
resistance to Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor -

1831-Winter Majetin apples were reported resistance

to the woolly aphid, Eriosoma langigerum -’

1890- Grapevine phylloxera, Viteus vitifoliae was

controlled in French vine yards by using resistant
rootstocks of America for grafting by Dr. C.V. Riley. This
method was named as ‘Riley method’. Only after 1920,
extensive studies were started on plant resistance by
the pioneer of resistance R.H. Painter (Kansas State
University, USA). He published a book “Insect
Resistance in Crop Plants” in 1951.
•.
Types of Resistance
1. Ecological or pseudo resistance
2. Genetic or true resistance

1. Ecological or pseudo resistance

No heritable trait is involved
i. Host evasion: a host may pass through the most susceptible
stage quickly or at a time when number of insects is less (early
maturing varieties).
ii. Host escape: absence of infestation or injury to the host plant
because of transitory circumstances such as incomplete infestation
iii. Induced resistance: increase in resistance temporarily as a
result of some changed conditions of plants or environment such
as change in the amount of water or nutrient status of the soil or
plant (low N, hing K, etc.)
• Genetic Resistance or true
resistance
• A. Based on number of genes

• i. Monogenic resistance- resistance is

controlled by a single gene
• ii. Oligogenic resistance- resistance is
controlled by few genes
• iii. Polygenic resistance- resistance is
controlled by many genes (also called as
horizontal resistance)
• B. Based on biotype reaction
• i. Vertical resistance- resistance is specific
to a given biotype (less stable)
• ii. Horizontal resistance- resistant against
all the known biotypes of insect also called
‘non-specific resistance’
• C. Miscellaneous categories
• i. Cross resistance- when a variety with
resistance to a particular pest may confer
resistance to another pest.
• ii. Multiple resistance- ability of a variety
to resist variety of environmental stresses
like insect, diseases, nematodes, etc.
Mechanism of Resistance
• Painter(1951) grouped mechanisms of resistance into
three main categories viz, non-preference, antibiosis
and tolerance

• 1. Non-preference or Antixenosis The term

antixenosis was coined by Kogan and Ortman (1978).
Xenosis means ‘guests’ in Greek. Antixenosis refers to
the ‘the resistance mechanisms employed by host plant
to deter or reduce colonization of insects’. Antixenosis
may result from certain morphological characteristics or
the presence of allelochemicals in the host plant, which
adversely affect the oviposition, rate of development,
death, and reproduction.
• 2. Antibiosis It refers to ‘the adverse effect of
the host plant on the biology (survival,
development and reproduction) of the insects and
their progeny infesting it’. The adverse effect may
be due to presence of toxic substances, absence of
insufficient amount of essential nutrients, presence
of antimetabolites and enzymes, which adversely
affect food digestion, and utilization of nutrients.
The symptoms on insects affected by antibiosis are
death of immature stages, reduce growth rate,
disruption in conversion of ingested food, decline
in size and weight of larvae, prolongation of larval
period, failure to pupate, death in pupal stage,
abnormal adults, reduced fecundity, restlessness
and abnormal behaviour.
• 3. Tolerance It refers to ‘the ability of the
host plant to withstand an insect
population sufficient to damage severely
the susceptible plants’. It is generally
attributed to plant vigour, regrowth of
damage tissues, resistance to lodging,
ability to produce additional branches and
compensation by neighboring plants.
Bases of resitance
• Bases of Resistance
• 1. Biophysical bases The morphological and
anatomical characteristics of a plant like colour,
shape, size, thick cuticle, trichomes, surface
waxes, silica deposits, glandular hairs, tight leaf
sheath, compact panicle and tightness of husk
influence insects’ preference. The resistance
mechanisms related to morphological or structural
plant features all together is called ‘phenetic
resistance’. Phenetic resistance causes reduced or
impaired feeding or oviposition and contribute to
the action of other mortality factors.
Examples
• 1. Tightly wrapped leaf sheath, closely
packed vascular bundles and high silica
content –Rice stem borer
• 2. Red pericarp and surface wax –Brown
plant hopper
• 3. Pubescent varieties of soybean, cotton,
and bhendi –Leaf hopper
• 4. Frego bract cotton varieties –Boll weevil
• 2. Biochemical bases
• Several inorganic chemicals in plants impart resistance
to a wide variety of insect pests.
• Examples:
• 1. Nutrients:
• Asparagine in Mudgo rice variety – Brown plant
hopper
• Low carbohydrates –Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna
varivestis
• Low amino acids –Pea aphid, Acyrthrosiphon pisum
• 2. Allelochemicals:
• DIMBOA (2,4-dihydroxil -7 methyl 1-1,4 benozoxaxine-
3-one) –European corn borer, Ostrinia nubialis
• Cucurbitacins –Many cucurbit pests especially
Epilachna sp
• . Gossypol in cotton –Helicoverpa zea
• Pentadecanal in TKM 6 rice –Stem borer
Host Plant Resistance in Pest
Management
• Host Plant Resistance in Pest Management
Until 1960, the host plant resistance as a
method of insect control received little
attention except in few cases. However,
the growing awareness of the limitations of
pesticides in recent years has caused an
upsurge of interest in this approach in
insect control through developing a
resistant variety involves faculties of
different department ad requires several
years.
Methods of developing
resistant varieties
• 1. Screening of available germplasm sown
in lines under natural field conditions
• 2. Selective screening of elite entries
under natural infestation through
replicated trials
• 3. Selective screening of elite entries under
bombarded condition in cages.
Integration with other tactics
• 1. Chemical control: High mortality of plant
and leafhoppers was observed on resistant than
on susceptible rice varieties when sprayed with
insecticides. In many cases, the plant resistance
enhances the efficacy of insecticides. Also it
reduces the amount of insecticides required. For
example, the amount of malathion required to kill
aphid Myzus persicae, on Brussel’s sprouts is
reduced by 45% on partially resistant varieties.
• 2. Biological control: Though
compatible, indirectly affect the natural
enemies by reducing pest numbers. But it
weakens the pest populations, which will
make the pests more susceptible to natural
enemies. For example, the predatory
potential of spider Lycosa pseoannulata on
BPH is increased on resistant varieties
 3. Cultural control: Cultural practices (N
and K management) cause specific
physiological changes that reduce the
suitability of host plants for phytophagous
insects for example.
Advantages of Host Plant
Resistant
Selective – against a particular pest thus no
adverse effects on other insects or non-
target organisms. •
Cumulative – effect continuous against
successive generations •
Persistence – durable for long period
Ecofriendly – no pollution or deleterious
effects
Easily adaptable – at does not require
additional cost and easy to adopt by farmers
• Effective under all conditions
• • Compatible – compatible with other
pest control practices. Activity of
insecticides and natural enemies is more
on resistant varieties • Reduces pesticide
application – lessens frequent pesticide
applications • Useful for low value crop
Disadvantages of Host Plant
Resistanc
• Disadvantages of Host Plant Resistance
• • Time consuming
• • High initial cost
• • Biotype selection Biotypes are discrete
populations capable of utilizing and damaging the
plant genotypes resistant to other populations of
the same species. The biotypes are developed
due to the selection pressure when resistant
cultivars are grown widely. These biotypes can be
overcome by polygenic resistance.
Conflicting resistance factors

• Some plant traits confer resistance to one

pest but enhance susceptibility to others.
E.g. pubescent cotton varieties resistant to
leafhopper are susceptible to bollworms.
Frego bract in cotton mediates resistance
to American boll weevil but magnifies
susceptibility to plant bugs.
Thank you
for
listening
by: John Rie R.
Paraiso