POSTHARVEST

HANDLING

OF

PRODUCE
 Being living organs, fruits and vegetables continue
to respire even after harvesting when they have a
limited source of food reserves.

 In addition to degradation of respiratory substrates,

a number of changes in taste, colour, flavour,
texture and appearance take place in the harvested
commodities which make them unacceptable for
consumption by the consumers if these are not
handled properly.

 Post harvest technology starts immediately after

the harvest of fruits and vegetables.
1) Pre-cooling

Pre-cooled -
Alive &
Happy Not-Precooled
Sick and Die

Effect of pre-cooling
 Pre-cooling of the produce soon after their harvest (before
storage/ shipment) is one of the important
components of the cool chain, which ultimately affect
the shelf life of the produce.

 Rapid precooling to the products lowest safe temperature

is most critical for crops with having high respiration rates

 First step in good temperature management

 Purpose of precooling
 remove the field heat from the produce.
 To reduce moisture loss
 To reduce ethylene production
 To reduce respiration
 Micro- organism
 To increase shelf life
Field heat removal
Without a doubt, the most important factor affecting
postharvest life is temperature.

This is because temperature has a profound effect on

the rates of biological reactions, eg., metabolism and
respiration.

 Over the physiological range of most crops, ie.,0 to

30 °C (32 to 86 °F), increased temperatures cause an
exponential rise in respiration. so good temperature
is the single most important factor in delaying product
deterioration; prompt cooling and maintenance of
proper temperature are both essential.
For many products, this means maintaining
as low a temperature as possible without
danger of freezing.

The Van't Hoff Rule states that the velocity

of a biological reaction increases 2 to 3-fold
for every 10 °C (18 °F) rise in temperature.

 The temperature quotient for a 10 °C

interval is called the Q10.
Temperature Assumed Relative Relative Loss per day
(°C) Q10* velocity postharvest- (%)
of life
deterioration
0 - 1.0 100 1
10 3.0 3.0 33 3
20 2.5 7.5 13 8
30 2.0 15.0 7 14
40 1.5 22.5 4 25
 Cooling requirement for a crop vary with the air
temperature during harvesting, stage of maturity
and nature of crop.

 selection of precooling methods depends on:

 The temperature of produce at harvest
 Physiology of produce
 Desired postharvest life

Different methods of precooling:

 cold air (room cooling, forced air cooling),
 cold water (hydrocooling),
 direct contact with ice (contact icing),
 evaporation of water from the produce (evaporative
cooling, vacuum cooling) and
 combination of vacuum and hydrocooling (hydrovac
i) Room cooling :
 It is low cost and slow method of cooling.
 In this method, produce is simply loaded into a insulated cool room and
cool air is allowed to circulate among the cartons, sacks, bins or bulk
load.

Advantages:
 Produce can be cooled and stored at the same room thus saves on
handling costs
 No extra cost for pre-cooling equipment
 Suits for crops, which are marketed soon after harvest

Disadvantages:
 It is too slow method of cooling
 Space requirements for room cooling are more as compared to storage,
thus loss of storage capacity
 Unsuitable for packed produce
 Excessive water is lost from the produce due to slow cooling.

Horticulture crops suitable for rooms cooling are: Potato, onion, apple and
citrus
ii) Forced-air cooling:
 Forced air-cooling is mostly used for wide range of
horticultural produce

 This is the fastest method of pre-cooling

 Forced air-cooling pulls hot air or pushes cool air

through the vents/holes in storage containers

 In this method uniform cooling of the produce can be

achieved if the stacks are properly aligned.

 Cooling time depends on

(i) the airflow
(ii) the temperature difference between the produce and the
cold air and
(iii) Amount of the produce
Advantages:
 Fast method of pre cooling (upto 90% faster than
room cooling)

 Suitable for wide range of highly perishable

commodities.

 Uniform cooling, if produce are properly aligned.

 Cooling times can be controlled for different types of

produce by controlling the air flow rate.

Horticultural produce suitable for forced air cooling are:

Grapes, Berries, Pears, Peach, Oranges, Strawberries
tomato, and other tropical and subtropical fruits.
iii) Hydrocooling :
 cleaning and precooling at same time
 The use of cold water is an old and effective cooling method
used for quickly cooling a wide range of fruits and vegetables
before packaging.

 For the packed commodities it is less used because

 difficulty in the movement of water through the containers and
 high cost involved in water tolerant containers.

 This method of cooling not only avoids water loss but may even
add water to the commodity.

 Some chemicals (nutrients/growth regulators/ fungicides) can also

be mixed with the water used in hydrocooling to prolong the shelf
life by improving nutrient status of crop and preventing the spread
of post harvest diseases.

 The hydrocooler normally used are of two types :

 Shower type and Immersion type
Advantages :
• Less energy is used as compared to forced air
cooling i.e. water removes heat about 5 times faster
than air

• Moisture loss does not take place.

Disadvantages :
• Most of the packages don’t tolerate wetting

• Wax layer of some fruits like pear, plum, apple are

removed by using spray type of hydrocooler

Horticultural produce suitable for hydrocooling are:

Mango, peach, cherry, Asparagus etc. not suitable
for berries, potato, onion etc
iv) Vacuum cooling:
 Vacuum cooling take place by water evaporation from the product at very
low air pressure.
 In this method, air is pumped out from a larger steel chamber in which the
produce is loaded for pre-cooling i.e. vacuum is created
 Removal of air results in the reduction of pressure of the atmosphere around
the produce, which further lowers, the boiling temperature of its water.
 As the pressure falls, the water boils quickly removing the heat from the
produce.
 Vacuum cooling cause about 1 per cent produce weight loss (mostly water) for
each 60C of cooling.

Advantages :
• Fast and uniform cooling takes place.
• Most energy efficient method.

Disadvantages :
• High capital cost
• Produce losses more moisture

To overcome the more loss of water from the produce, another method of water
spray vacuum is used, (modification of vacuum cooling), called hydro-vac
cooling.
v) Package-icing :
 In some commodities, crushed or flaked ice is packed
along with produce for fast cooling.

 However, as the ice comes in contact with the

produce, it melts, and the cooling rate slows
considerably.

 The ice keeps a high relative humidity around the

product.

 Liquid icing distributes the ice throughout the

container, achieving better contact with the product.

 Packaged icing can be used only with water tolerant,

non-chilling sensitive products and with water tolerant
packages (waxed fiber board, plastic or wood)
2. Washing, Cleaning and Trimming
 Before fresh fruits and vegetables are marketed various
amounts of cleaning are necessary which typically
involves the removal of soil dust, adhering debris,
insects and spray residues.

 Chlorine in fresh water is often used as disinfectant to

wash the commodity.

 Some fungicides like Diphenylamine (0.1 - 0.25%) or

ethoxyquin (0.2 - 0.5%) may be used as post harvest dip
to control the disorders
 For cleaning of some fruit type vegetables (melons,
brinjals, tomatoes, cucumber) they should be wiped with
damp cloth

 Many vegetable need trimming, cutting and removal of

unsightly leaves or other vegetative parts.
3. Sorting, Grading and Sizing
 Sorting is done by hand to remove the fruits which are
unsuitable to market or storage due to damage by
insects, diseases or mechanical injuries.
 The remainder crop product is separated into two or
more grades on the basis of the surface colour, shape or
visible defects. For eg, in an apple packing house in India
3 grades viz. Extra Fancy, Fancy and standard may be
packed for marketing. The fourth “cull” grade is meant
for processing.
 After sorting and grading, sizing is done either by hand or
machine.
 Machine sizers work on two basic principles: weight and
diameter. Sizing on the basis of fruit shape and size are
most effective for spherical (Oranges, tomato, certain
apple cultivars) and elongated (Delicious apples and
European pears or of non-uniform shape) commodities,
respectively.
4. Curing

 Curing is an effective operation to reduce the water

loss before or during storage of root and tuber
vegetables

 Refers to the process of healing or toughening of

wounds or periderm formation in root and tuber
crops

 Curing is done by exposing the commodity to the

temperature which is slightly higher than growing
temperature
 The curing methods employed for root crops are
entirely different than that from the bulbous crops
(onions and garlic).

 Curing helps in the healing of harvest injuries,

reduces loss of water and prevents the infection by
decay pathogens.

 Onions and garlic are cured to dry the necks and

outer scales

 For the curing of onion and garlic, the bulbs are left
in the field after harvesting under shade for a few
days until the green tops, outer skins and roots are
fully dried.
 Process of curing in cut surface of potato
 Deposition of suberin in cut surface
 Cell below the suberised layer becomes meristematic and give rise
to protective layer of cell i.e. periderm
 Dense network of periderm is called phellem
 Cultural practices of curing
 bending of neck of onion
 Dehaulming of potato
 Check irrigation before harvesting
 Factor affecting curing
 Temperature:
slightly higher than growing temp
For hilly areas root crops: 15-25°C
For plain areas root crops: 26-34°C
 Relative Humidity:
Favorable RH: 80-95%
High temperature and high RH favors curing
 Gases:
Wound healing doesn’t occurs if CO 2 is higher than 10% and oxygen
is less than 5%
5. Waxing
 Waxes are esters of higher fatty acid with
monohydric alcohols and hydrocarbons

 Waxing generally reduces the respiration and

transpiration rates

 Other chemicals such as fungicides, growth

regulators, preservative can also be incorporated
specially for reducing microbial spoilage, sprout
inhibition etc.

 It should be remembered that waxing does not

improve the quality of any inferior horticulture
product but it can be a beneficial adjunct to good
handling.
The advantages of wax application are:
 Improved appearances of fruit

 Reduced moisture losses and retards wilting and

shrivelling

 Creates diffusion barrier as a result of which it

reduces the availability of 02 to the tissues thereby
reducing respiration rate

 Protects fruits from micro-biological infection

 Considered a cost effective substitute in the

reduction of spoilage when refrigerated storage is
unaffordable
 The principal disadvantage of wax coating is the
development of off- flavor if not applied properly

 Adverse flavor changes have been attributed to

inhibition of O2 and CO2 exchange thus, resulting in
anaerobic respiration and elevated ethanol and
acetaldehyde contents

 Paraffin wax, Carnauba wax, Bee wax, Shellac,

Wood resins and Polyethylene waxes used
commercially.
6. Packaging
 ™ A coordinated system of preparing goods for transport,
distribution, storage, retailing and end use

 ™ A means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate

consumer in sound conditions at minimum cost

 Proper or scientific packaging of fresh fruits and

vegetables reduces the wastage of commodities by
protecting them from mechanical damage, dirt, moisture
loss and other undesirable physiological changes and
pathological deterioration during the course of storage,
transportation and subsequent marketing

 wooden boxes, baskets woven from bamboo or twigs,

sack/jute bags, plastic crates and corrugated fiber board
(CFB) boxes are in general use
Requirements of a Good Package:
 Should be environment friendly; The package should be
designed for ease of disposal, re-use, or recycling.

 Should have sufficient strength in compression and against

impact and vibrations

 Should be stable during the entire distribution chain

 Should be compatible with the automatic packing/filling,

handling machines (mechanical filling systems)

 Should facilitate special treatments like pre-cooling

 Should have consumer appeal

 Should be easily printable

 Should be cost effective

 The packaging material must be free of chemical

substances that could transfer to the produce and
become toxic to man

 The package must meet handling and marketing

requirements in terms of weight, size, and shape

 The permeability of plastic films to respiratory gases

could also be important

 Ease of opening and closing might be important in some

marketing situations

 The package should be appropriate for retail

presentations
7. Ripening
 Final stage of fruit development

 Process of developing all the desirable changes

 Ripening is a process in fruits that causes them to become

edible. The fruit becomes sweeter, less green and softer

 Fruit ripening is a highly coordinated, genetically

programmed, and an irreversible phenomenon involving a
series of physiological, biochemical, and organoleptic
changes, that finally leads to the development of a soft
edible ripe fruit with desirable quality attributes

 However, all fruits do not ripen in the same manner. On the

basis of their ripening behavior, fruits are classified as:
Climacteric Fruits
Non-Climacteric Fruits
In climacteric, the respiration slows down as the
fruit ripens and develops good eating quality

In climacteric fruits, ripening refers to fruits that

can be harvested when physiologically matured

The start of ripening is accompanied by a rapid rise

in respiration rate, called the respiratory climacteric

Examples: Mango, Banana, Papaya, Guava, Sapota,

Kiwi, Fig, Apple, Passion fruit, Apricot, Plum, Pear.
In non climacteric ripening refers to those fruits
which ripe on the tree as observed in cherry, grape,
lemon etc

Respiration rate decreases gradually during growth

and after harvest

Examples:
Orange, Mousambi, Kinnow, Grapefruit, Grapes,
Pomegranate, Litchi, Watermelon, Cherry,
Raspberry, Blackberry, Strawberry.
Difference between climateric and non climateric
fruits
Climateric Non climateric
Respiration: sudden rise Respiration: continuous decline
in respiration
Ethylene production: sudden Ethylene production:
rise continuous decline during growth
and ripening
Response to ethylene: once Response to ethylene: keep on
climateric initiated no response to response
ethylene application
Magnitude of response: Magnitude of response:
increase in ethylene application increase in ethylene application
does not cause increased CO2 cause increase in CO2 production
production. There is only shift in
time
Propylene Vs ethylene: we can Propylene Vs ethylene: no
observe internal ethylene ethylene production
production by applying propylene
Sugar and acid content changes Sugar and acid content doesn't
Changes during ripening

Action of Different
enzymes
Pigment changes
Chlorophyll (Green color) - a loss of
chlorophyll in tomatoes is good but a loss in
chlorophyll in broccoli is bad
Carotenoids (Yellow, Orange and Red colors)
- Carotenoids are desirable in fruits such as
apricots, peaches and citrus giving them their
yellow and orange color. In tomatoes and pink
grapefruit a specific carotenoid called
lycopene gives them their red color
Anthocyanins (Red and Blue colors) -
Anthocyanins give red and blue color to
apples, berries, cherries etc.
Phenolic compounds - Are responsible for
tissue browning.
Changes in the firmness
 Middle lamella of cell wall is made up of calcium
pectate
 Hydrolases synthesised during ripening process
leads to the destruction of cells wall and tissue
Propectin (unripe)

Pectin

Pectinic acid

Glactouronic acid (ripe)

Carbohydrate changes
Conversion of starch to sugar - Not desirable in potato
but very desirable in apples, bananas
Conversion of sugar to starch - Not desirable in sweet
corn but very desirable in potato
Conversion of starch and sugars to CO2 and water
during respiration - Not desirable because it leads to a
reduction in quality
Other Changes
Organic acids (affects sweetness)
Proteins (affects texture)
Amino acids (affects flavor)
Lipids (affects flavor)
Development of wax
Change in tissue permeability
Fig: Changes in Chlorophyll and Anthocyanin
content in strawberry fruit during ripening
 Fig: Changes in Starch and Soluble sugar
content in strawberry fruit during ripening
 Mechanism of
ripening
RNA metabolism- In many fruits the
maturation process is accompanied by
an increased RNA synthesis
Enzymes- increase in the activity of
many hydrolytic enzymes. Softening of
the fruit and Alteration in taste
Pigment formation- The most striking
change that a ripening fruit undergoes
concerns with its color by the synthesis
of carotenoid and anthocyanins.
Change in permeability-
   

Ripening of Climacteric Fruits

Conventional Ripening Method

 Calcium Carbide reacts with moisture in the air to
produce acetylene gas which acts as a ripening agent
but is believed to affect the nervous system by reducing
supply of oxygen to the brain.
 Despite its well known health hazard, it is still in use as
a potent ripening regulator in the tropical fruits like
mango and banana.
 For banana ripening, the general dose is around 5g/10
bunch in closed or air tight condition to 10-60 g per 230
liter drum (Pantastico and Mendozoa, 1970; Bautista,
1990).
 In mangoes, it was found that at 25°C and a 24 hour
exposure time then at least 1 ml per liter of acetylene
was required to initiate ripening ( Medlicott et al.,1987).
 Ripening with
Ethylene
The only scientific and
safe ripening method
accepted worldwide is
the use of Ethylene
Exposure of unripe fruit
to a miniscule dose of
ethylene sufficient to
stimulate the natural
ripening process until
the fruit itself starts
producing ethylene in
large quantities.
Fig: Ethylene production in C. arabica
during ripening
 Factors involved in
regulation of ripening
Temperature
 Fruit harvested at right time generally ripen at any
temperature
 Exposure to temperatures above 35°C has inhibited
ripening in different fruits (Paull, 1990; Lurie, 1998).
 Garcia et al. (1995) found that hot water dipping of
the strawberry (Fragaria ananassa Duch., cv. Tudla)
reduced fruit decay, increased the soluble solids
content and decreased titratable acidity.
 Heating mature green tomatoes for 2 or 3 d at 38°C
reversibly inhibited ripening and decreased fruit
decay in storage (Lurie and Sabehat, 1997).
 Humidity
Relative humidity can influence water loss,
decay development, incidence of some
physiological disorders and uniformity of fruit
ripening
Hinders the development of aroma and flavor
Proper relative humidity is typically 85 to 95%
for fruits and 90 to 98% for vegetables.
Control of relative humidity
Adding moisture (water mist or spray) to the
air with humidifiers
Sprinkling produce with water
Wetting floors in storage rooms
 Radiations
Act as inhibitors or stimulators of ripening
process.

Grapes ripe more quickly under treatments

with infrared radiations.

Bananas irradiated with X-ray exhibited a

decrease in softening but an increase in skin
blackening.

Artificial UV-C radiation also delays fruit

ripening (Maharaj et al., 1999) and affects
fruit softening (Ait Barka et al., 2000)
Contd…
Increasing shade markedly
reduced ripening, causing
reduction in sugar, phenol, and
anthocyanin concentrations and
increase in titratable acidity.

Red light supplementation caused

increased nitrate reductase activity
in leaves and earlier fruit
 Smoke
Light a smoky fire in the ripening
room.

This can produce various gases,

including acetylene, ethylene and
carbon monoxide, which will
initiate ripening.

 used in many developing

 Damage
Wounding the banana bunch stalks

Stick is inserted into the stalk of

jackfruit

Cutting, scraping or ‘pinching’

papaya, or avocado, which can
hasten ripening. 
 Chemicals
Chemicals like calcium chloride, calcium
nitrate, 2,4-D, and 2,4,5-T have been reported
to affect the shelf life of fruits

Storage life of citrus fruit is prolonged by

spray of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T

Postharvest water dipping at 50°C for 5 min

significantly increased the shelf life and
maintained the quality of ber (Lal et al., 2002)
Contd….
Dipping in a calcium (Ca) solution has been
used as a firming agent to extend the
postharvest shelf life of apples (Lurie and
Klein, 1992; Conway et al., 1999),

Application of 1-MCP is best suited for apples

to maintain the crunchy texture

Use of 1-MCP is more challenging in

mangoes because the requirement is to
 Growth substances
 Ethylene is gaseous plant growth substance which is
involved in the regulation of many aspects of:
-Growth and development
-Fruit ripening
-Senescence
Control of ethylene production
 Reducing the storage temperature
 Reducing O2 levels to less than 8%
 Treating with enzyme inhibitors of ACC synthase and
ACC oxidase
 Genetic engineering (using antisense technology to
prevent enzyme expression).

Ethylene blockage
 Treating with silver thiosulphate (commonly used in
flowers);
 Hypobaric storage - keeping the commodity under
vacuum;
 Elevating CO2 to more than 12%
 Genetic engineering (blocking the ethylene receptor)
 Regulation of ethylene production by
genetic modification

Suppression of ACC synthase gene

expression
Insertion of the ACC deaminase
gene
Insertion of the SAM hydrolase
gene
Suppression of ACC oxidase gene
expression
Gibberellic Acid
GA3 has an inhibitory effect on strawberry
fruit ripening

Decrease in the respiratory activity and a

delay in anthocyanin synthesis and
chlorophylls degradation

Treatment with GA3 by dipping the tip of the

fruit only or the whole fruit, resulted in more
delay of fruit ripening.
Auxin
 Softening and degreening were inhibited
increasingly in response to increased
concentrations of indoleacetic acid.

Endogenous auxins in fruit represent a

resistance factor in ripening and must be
inactivated before ripening occur

Abscissic Acid
ABA facilitates initiation and progress in the
sequence of ethylene-mediated ripening
events, possibly by enhancing the sensitivity
to ethylene.
 Controlled Atmosphere Storage
and Modified Atmosphere
Packages
Holding produce in an atmosphere
that differs substantially from normal
air in respect to CO2 and O2 levels

A considerable decrease in respiration

rate, with a reduction in climacteric
maximum, accompanied by an
expansion of both pre-climacteric and
post-climacteric period.
Contd……

 A reduction in the effect of ethylene on

metabolism due to the interaction of O2
with ethylene.

Paull and Chen (2004) indicate that the

storage life of mangoes can be extended
by holding the fruit in an environment with
3 to 5% O2 and 5 to 10% CO2, at 7 to 9 °C
and 90% relative humidity atmosphere.
 Edible Coatings
Polyethylene film liners, sealed or perforated
significantly delayed fruit ripening, maintained
quality and extended shelf life of bananas.
Wax coatings are effective at reducing water
loss in mangoes during storage
Baldwin notes that edible coatings can provide
a suitable atmosphere for each fruit with low
O2 and high CO2 levels to reduce ripening
rates in many climacteric fruits by preventing
anaerobic respiration.
Baldwin et al. (1999) observed a delayed in
ripening of ’Tommy Atkins’ mangoes when
coated with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (a
 Alteration in the CO2 and O2 atmosphere

Decreasing the level of CO2 helps the

ripening of the fruits (Selvaraj, 1993).

Low level of O2 prevents ripening of fruits

as a result of reduced respiration and
ethylene synthesis.

Oxygen tension greater than one

atmosphere tends to promote ethylene
synthesis consequently promoting ripening.
 Plant materials
 All parts of plant give off ethylene in varying amounts
after harvest.

 Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania sp., Cordia mixia,

Averrhoa balimbi (starfruit), Bauhinia purpurea (Acedo
and Bautista, 1991a; Acedo and Bautista,1991b),
Justicia adhatoda, Melia azadirach, Pogostemon
benghalensis, Colebrookean oppostifolia L. (Basnyat
et. al., 1996; Basnyat and Shrestha, 1995-96) and
Acacia sp. (Bautista,1990) are widely used for banana
ripening.

 Use of 70-100 g of fresh leaves per 1 kg of fruit or

10% on weight basis for 24 hour of treatment of
bananas covered with jute sacks was said to be
Principles and methods of
storage
7. Storage
Principle of storage:
Reducing the metabolic activities of the stored
produce to meet the following activities

Objective of storage:
 Regulate the market in an orderly manner.
 Avoid glut and distress sale in the market, thus
prolonging the market period.
 In long-term storage, making the food available in
off-season.

A number of storage techniques (ground storage,

ambient storage, refrigerated storage, air cooled
storage, zero energy storage, modified atmospheric
Tips for storage of high quality horticultural produce
 Store only high quality produce, free of damage, decay and of proper
maturity (not over-ripe or under-mature)

 Know the requirements for the commodities you want to put into
storage, and follow recommendations for proper temperature,
relative humidity and ventilation

 Avoid lower than recommended temperatures in storage, because

many commodities are susceptible to damage from freezing or
chilling

 Do not over load storage rooms or stack containers closely

 Provide adequate ventilation in the storage room

 Keep storage rooms clean

 Storage facilities should be protected from rodents by keeping the

immediate outdoor area clean, and free from trash and weeds
 Do not stack containers beyond their stacking strength

 Monitor temperature in the storage room by placing

thermometers at different locations

 Don’t store onion or garlic in high humidity environments

 Avoid storing ethylene sensitive commodities with those that

produce ethylene

 Avoid storing produce known for emitting strong odors (apples,

garlic, onions, turnips, cabbages, and potatoes) with odor-
absorbing commodities

 Inspect stored produce regularly for signs of injury, water loss,

damage and disease

 Remove damaged or diseased produce to prevent the spread of

problems
Methods of storage
Selection of storage techniques depends upon
 nature of the commodity
 storage period intended
 Cost
 Location

Ordinary storage
 No any control of environment
e.g. Potato store over the floor
Onion and garlic hang over
Pumpkin stored in dry shelf
Field storage
 Storage of produce in trenches or pits

 Cabbage, sweet potato, ginger, turmeric, potato,

carrots, beets etc can be stored in field

 Best in the area having less rainfall

 Best in temperate regions

 Low or no cost required

 Have no control of environment (natural control)

 Difficult to remove the produce when environment is in

unfavorable condition
Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage
 Controlled atmosphere storage generally refers to
keeping produce at decreased oxygen and
increased carbon dioxide concentrations and at
suitable range of temperature and RH

 The term imply, the addition or removal of gases

resulting in an atmospheric composition different
from that of normal air

 Thus the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen, ethylene,

and metabolic volatiles in the atmosphere may be
manipulated

 2-3% of CO2 has been reported in case of apple

Modified atmosphere storage

 Principle is same as CAS

 Modification in atmosphere is achieved through produce

 To avoid excess CO2 accumulation fresh hydrated lime can be used in

bag @ 100 -200 g per 10 kg of fruits

 Perforations of different size are available in package to provide

ventilation

 In MAP (modified atmospheric packaging) produce is enclosed in

polymeric films and is allowed to generate its own atmosphere
(passive MAP) or air of known composition is flushed into the bag
(active MAP) and depending upon gas / vapour transmission
characteristics of the film on appropriate atmosphere develops in the
package to prolong shelf life

 MAP is ideally combined with temperature control for maximum benefit

Benefits of CA storage
 Slow down respiration and ethylene production rates,
softening and retard senescence of horticultural produce

Harmful effects of CA storage

 Initiation or aggravation of certain physiological disorders
can occur, such as blackheart in potatoes, brown stain on
lettuce, and brown heart in apples and pears

 Irregular ripening of fruits, such as banana, mango, pear

and tomato, can result from exposure to O2 levels below
2% or CO2 levels above 5% for more than 2 to 4 weeks

- Off- flavors and off-odors at very low O2 or very high CO2

concentration may develop as a result of anaerobic
respiration and fermentative metabolism.
Cellar storage
 Underground storage

 Commonly used in hilly regions

 Used to store citrus and apple

 15°C less than ambient temperature

 Constructed in such a way that all the sides of the

storage are covered with earth except entrance

 Prepared in north facing slope

 Spray of water is done to increase RH of the storage

Rustic storage
 Used for storage of seed tuber

 Suitable in the high hills

 Diffused lights are allowed to the tubers

 Potato stored in this storage is not suitable for

eating purpose

 Robust green sprouts can be seen in the tubers

Zero energy storage
 Can be prepared in any place where RH is
comparatively low

 Suitable in dry areas

 10-15°C low temperature than ambient

temperature

 90-95% RH can be maintained

Hypobaric storage

 Hypobaric storage is a form of controlled atmosphere storage in which

the produce is stored in a partial vacuum

 The vacuum chamber is vented continuously with water saturated air to

maintain oxygen levels and to minimize water loss

 Ripening of fruit is retarded by hypobaric storage, due to the reduction in

the partial pressure of oxygen and for some fruits also to the reduction in
the ethylene levels

 A reduction in pressure of air to 10 kilopascals (0.1 atmosphere) is

equivalent to reducing the oxygen concentration to about 2 % at normal
atmospheric pressure

 Hypobaric stores are expensive to construct because of the low internal

pressures required, and this high cost of application appears to limit
hypobaric storage to high value produce such as cut flowers

 Secondly control of gases during the storage cannot be manipulated

Cold storage
 Reducing the temperature in the store to reduce
metabolic activities
 working principle of cold storage is same as
refrigerator
Working principle of refrigerator
 Consists of three basic components
 Compressor: consists of ammonia gas which is highly
compressed to increase its temperature
 Condenser: highly heated gas is cooled and change
into liquid by condenser
 Evaporator: cooled gas is allowed to mist into the
evaporator
 Thermo-expansion valve:
 Insulated wall:
Factors affecting storage
• Temperature
– Higher temperature higher metabolic activities
– Rate of reaction within physiological temperature range increase exponentially
with increase in temperature
– Chemical reaction approx. doubles with 10°C rise in temp
– lower limit of physiological temperature is above freezing temperature
– And higher limit of physiological temperature is around 30°C
– At higher temperature ethylene cannot act, color cannot develop, enzyme
cannot perform functions so metabolic injury occurs
– Safe storage temperature is above freezing temperature care should be taken
for chilling sensitive cultivars
• Relative humidity
– Higher RH lower water loss
– Very high RH favors fungus growth
– 90% RH is best but for onion 65-75% and for leafy vegetables 98-100%
• Ventillation
– Excessive ventilation results wilting and shrinkage while inadequate may
cause decay of produce
– Necessary to manage temperature
– For gaseous exchange
• Stage of maturity
– Should be harvested at right time for longer shelf life
Recommended temperature and RH for some
commodities

Commodit Temp RH Storage

y life
Apple 1-4 90-95 3-8 months
Banana 12-15 85-90 3-5 wks
Grape 0-1 90-95 2-3 months
Guava 8-10 85-90 2-3 wks
Lime 8-10 90 6-8 wks
Mango 12-15 85-90 3-4 wks
Papaya 8-10 90 1-2 wks
Basic physiology of
attached and detached
organ
Basic physiology difference between attached and
detached plant organ
Physiological process Attached organ Detached organ
Absorption/ Uptake Roots absorb water and Does not have root to
minerals from the soil absorb water and
and translocation takes minerals so no
place translocation
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis takes Generally no
place and translocation photosynthesis though
of food materials to take place no
other organs translocation to other
organs
Transpiration Transpiration loss is No any supported
supported by absorption means and cause weight
means of temperature loss and shriveling
mgmt
Respiration Break down of substrate Breakdown of substrate
and release of energy; and release of energy;
loss of substrate is loss of substrate is not
supported by supported by
photosynthesis photosynthesis
Water loss
 The loss of water in harvested commodities cause great
economic and quality loss

 Fresh horticultural commodities are unique packages of

water

 In fact freshness is water and water sells

 Reserved food materials, water and structural materials

are the major components of fruits, vegetables and
flowers

 What ever may be the substrate final oxidation of the

reserved food materials yields water, carbon dioxide
and energy
 External environment controls all the reactions

 Higher the amount of oxygen available higher will

be the reaction and vice versa

 Amount of oxygen available depends upon the

permeability of the surrounding tissue
Main sites of water loss in harvested organs
are
 Epidermal layer:
 cuticles and wax are continously deposited on the epidermal
cell
 Mature fruits and leaves have thicker cuticles and wax so loss
less water than immature ones
Stomata:
Immature organ have more number of
stomata than matured ones
Lenticles:
Circular group of protruding air filled cells
with a central opening which often takes
place the place of stomata, leaves and roots
Continuously open and allow exchange of
gases and water
Emergences and Trichomes :
 Visible hairs or spines in the surface of leaves, fruits
or stems are known as emergences while tiny hairs
may not be visible to the naked eyes are called
trichomes
 These appendages increase the surface areas and
Factors affecting water loss
 Morphology of plant parts
 Younger tissues have lesser degree development of
cuticle and wax on the surface so water loss is higher
 Weight loss of some horticultural commodities at 80°F
and 60% RH

Vegetables Water loss % per day

Asparagus 8.4
Snap bean 4.0
Carrot (top removed) 3.6
Cucumber 2.5
tomato 0.9
 Relative humidity
 RH is the amount of water vapor present in the
atmosphere at a particular temperature as compared
to its water holding capacity at that temperature and
expressed in percentage
 Effect of RH on Vapor pressure at 70°F

Relative Vapor pressure VPD

Humidity
100 18.76 0

90 16.88 1.88

70 13.13 5.63

50 9.38 9.38
 Respiration
 Directly proportional to water loss
 Rate of cooling
 Higher rate of cooling causes more water loss from the
commodity
 Air movement
 Faster the unsaturated air movement higher will be
water loss
 Pressure
 Lower the pressure more will be water loss
 Temperature
 Effect of temperature is on VP/ humidity
 Higher temperature will increase vapor pressure of
water
 Higher temp means higher water loss

RH Temp VP

Vegetable 100 70F 18.76

stored at 90 70F 16.88
Difference 1.88
100 32F 5.37
90 32F 4.83
Difference 0.54
Preservatives
Sugar
Where concentration of sugar is 66% or more does
not allow fermentation
Arrest the growth of micro-organism due to
development of anti-osmotic process
Salt
Where the concentration of salt is 15-20% moulds
and bacteria cannot grow
Water diffuse from the plant tissue and reduces the
water in the tissue
Vinegar
Commercially available vinegar contains 4-5%
acetic acid
Vinegar arrest the activities of bacteria by creating
acid media
Most of the bacteria cannot grow in acid media
Vinegar also adds taste and flavor of the products
Lactic acid
Lactic acid itself acts as a preservatives by
preventing the growth of other bacteria in
anaerobic condition
Benzoic acid
Tasteless and odorless
Sodium benzoate when dissolve in water it releases
benzoic acid
The preservatives action of benzoic acid increase
with the presence of CO2 and acidity
In more acidic, 0.1% sodium benzoate is sufficient
Less acidic product, 0.3% is necessary
The preservative action of benzoic acid is more
effective against yeast as compared to mould
It does not arrest the process of lactic acid and
vinegar fermentation
Sulphur dioxide
Most effective chemical preservative
Strong anti-oxidant; prevents discoloration and loss
of flavor
Effective against moulds and bacteria than yeast.
Preservative action increases with increase in pH of
the product
Potassium meta-bisulphate is the commercially
used
When added in fruit juice it liberated sulphur
dioxide
Maximum amt of sulphur dioxide allow = 350 ppm
for juice
Have bleaching effect to naturally colored juice
Not used in product that are to be stored in tin
Carbonation
Air which contain oxygen is replaced by CO 2
Absence of oxygen and presence of carbon dioxide
prevents the growth of mould and yeast
Heat treatment
Main objective of heat treatment is to kill harmful
microbes and to inactivate enzymes
Processed food can be preserved for long time in
sealed containers
Freezing
Most satisfactory methods currently available for
long term preservation
If properly conducted it is effective in retaining
flavor, nutritive value and texture
Pasteurization
 most commonly used method for preserving liquid
product
Objective: to kill microbes and to inactivate the
enzymes
The process of heating juice to 100°C or below for
sufficient time to kill micro-organism is called
pasteurization
Mould spore generally destroy by heating at 80C for
5-10 minutes
HTST: High temperature short time; also called flash
pasteurization
Some of the fruit juices are spoiled if exposed to
longer duration at higher temperature
Juice is heated for about a minute to a temperature
about 10 degrees higher than the pasteurization
Pasteurization of fruit juice can be done by
following methods
In bottle or holding pasteurization:
 In this methods the prepared juice is filled in the
bottle leaving proper head space
 Bottles are then sealed and then pasteurized
Pasteurization by overflow methods:
 In this methods the juice is heated 5 C above the
pasteurization temperature
 Then fill the juice in sterilized containers
 Sealed immediately
 And then again pasteurization
 Cool at room temperature
Jam/Jelly/Marmalade
preparation
Jam is prepared by cooking fruit pulp with
sugar
Jelly is prepared by cooking fruit juice with
sugar
If fruit pieces are added in the jam/jelly
then it is called jam/jelly marmalade
 Jam preparation methods
Selection of fruits:
Can be prepared from all types of fruits but in case
jelly the fruits should be rich in pectin
Pectin, acid and sugar are the three major component
of jam and jelly
Citrus, guava, lemon, apple etc are rich in pectin
Preparation of fruits:
Washing, cutting, peeling, removing seeds, blending
etc
Add little amount of water to make slurry
Cooking:
Add desired amount of sugar before cooking
Amount of sugar depends on the pectin, sugar and
Addition of color and flavor:
End point determination
TSS content: 68.5B
Boiling point: 105.5C
Sheet test:
Cold water test:
Packaging:
Allow to cool the product to 85F
Filled in clean dry glass jar
Seal the jar immediately with wax paper and
lid
Sealing helps to created vacuum
labeling
Tomato Ketchup Preparation
It is made by concentrating tomato juice or
pulp without seeds or pieces of skin
A prepared tomato ketchup should contain
28 % TSS and less than 12% tomato solids

Select red ripe fruits and then washing

should be done
Cut into pieces
Tomato juice can be extracted by two
methods
Hot methods
Cold methods
In hot method tomatoes are cut into pieces
and boiled in their own juice for about 5-10
minutes to facilitate pulping and juice is
extracted
In cold methods the juice is extracted
directly without cooking
In hot method pectin is also extracted from
the tomato and quality of juice is retained
the juice becomes deep red
In cold methods the juice is thin, it needs
more cooking color is poor
Sometimes it is necessary to collect seed
Recipe for tomato ketchup for 10 liter
Onion chopped 12g g
Garlic 8g
Cloves 3 g
Spices 4 g
Mace 0.8 g
Cinamon 8g
Red chillies powdered 4 g
Salt 100 g
Sugar 300 g
Vinegar 250 ml
Spices (cardamom, black pepper, cumin) 4 g
Slight variation can be made depending
upon market demand
One third of sugar should be added initially
at the start of boiling to protect red color
The rest of sugar should be added when
the ketchup is almost ready
Salt bleaches the tomato color so should be
added towards the end of boiling
Vinegar should be added when the ketchup
thicknes sufficiently
All the spices should be packed in muslin
cloth and dip in the juice during boiling
Boiling till whole mass becomes one third
or thick enough and added rest of sugar
and salt
Sodium benzoate is used as preservatives:
285 mg per kg of finished products
Hot ketchup if filled is sterilised bottle and
then sealed immediately and then
pasteurized and allow cool in room
temperature
 Drying
 Almost all fruits and vegetables can be preserved by
drying and dehydration
 Drying can saves 5-20% of postharvest losses
 One of the oldest methods of fruit preservation
 Methods of reducing moisture of the product and store
in concentrated form
 Microorganism needs moisture for growth thus dried
product can be kept for longer time without spoilage
 Selection and washing of fruits
 Peeling and slicing : 2cm thickness
 Blanching:
 process of heat treatment to inactivate enzymes
 It is carried out in boiling water or stem
It also kills the MO present in the food
materials
Blanching in hot water is done for 2-8
minutes depending upon the types of
vegetables
Chemical preservatives like potassium
metabisulphate 0.5% can be add in the
boiling water
Addition of color helps to ensure maximum
retention of color
Blanching is not practiced in fruits as it
gives cooked flavor
Sulphuring
Sulphuring is one of the important operation
Some of the fruits develop brown color
during drying
Sulphur acts as antioxidant and prevents
oxidation browning of fruits
It also helps to maintain the color
0.5% solution of potassium metabisulphate
for 5 minutes
Drying
In commercial scale different types of dryers
are used
For best quality the temperature should be
maintained between 55-60 C
Temperature should never exceed 70 C
Drying ratio is usually 8:1 in fruits and may
goes upto 35:1
Solar drying
Ordinary drying have some disadvantages
like:
There is no control over the crop drying:
Uniform drying of the products
Slow drying
Crop may be damaged by different
environmental factors
There is loss in quality and quantity due to
birds insects rodents and smoke etc

Use of solar energy energy for drying; They

have vast potential provided that financially
feasible