Semiconductors and Nanotechnology
Semiconductors and Nanotechnology
Semiconductors and Nanotechnology
SEMICONDUCTORS AND
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Semiconductor
- limits of two types of measurements:
(a) electrical resistance – ( 1 to Ω at the room temperature )
(b) the energy gap ( 1 to 2 eV )
Elemental Semiconductors
- Pure Silicon and Germanium ( the best examples of elemental
semiconductors )
- Classification (based on the electrical conductivity)
(1) Intrinsic semiconductors – very small amounts of impurities
into an extremely pure semiconductor
(2) Extrinsic semiconductors – lightly and moderately impurities
into an pure semiconductors
(1) Intrinsic semiconductors
- pure Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) exhibit semiconducting
behaviour at above 0°K
- Forbidden energy gaps, Eg for Ge and Si = 1.0 and 2.0 eV
- Two approaches (the semiconducting behaviour of pure Ge & Si)
The total conductivity of Si is due to the transport of both electrons and holes.
At 0°K, all the valence electrons of silicon atoms lie in a completely filled VB, while the
next higher conduction band is empty and therefore, the Si crystal behaves as an insulator.
At temperature above 0°K, thermal agitation will lift a predictable number of electrons
into higher conduction band, depending on the distribution of energy of allowed status
and the temperature.
The number of electrons promoted to conduction band in the silicon crystal for semi-
conduction
The thermally excited free electrons move in the conduction band, while an equal number
of ‘holes’ created in the VB moves in the opposite direction under the applied field.
The total semiconductivity of pure intrinsic silicon is due to both
electrons and holes at temperature above 0°K and the number of
electrons and holes increases with temperature.
n = exp ( ̶ E/2KT)
Electrical Conductivity of an Intrinsic Semiconductor
- the “electrons and holes” contribute to the total conductivity of
an intrinsic semiconductor
- the conductivity of a semiconductor
σ= ne( + )
σ = conductivity ( )
n = density of charge carriers (concentration of e)
the number of charge carriers ( )
e = the charge carrier ( 1.602 x C )
μ = the mobility of charge carriers ( / V s (or) )
Ω = V s/C
Q. 1 The electron and hole mobilities of silicon are 1900 and
500 respectively. Calculate the number of charge
carriers for silicon at 290°K.
( e = 1.602 x C , σ = 5 x )
= 1900 = 500
e = 1.602 x C , σ=5x
σ= ne( + )
n=
=
= 1.302 x
Q. 2. The electron and hole mobilities of germanium at 298 K are
3350 and 1855 respectively. Calculate the number of
charge carriers, given the conductivity of Ge = 2.08 x
and electronic charge = 1.602 x C )
2.45 x
Host lattice Impurities
the energy difference between the donor and conduction band energy level – narrow
(0.01 – 0.05 eV) , the donor electrons can be easily to the conduction band. (n-type
semiconductor)
The conductivity of n-type semiconductor is
σ= e
= the density of the added donor impurity (dopant) atoms
= = the energy gap between the conduction band and the
donor energy level
p – type Extrinsic Semiconductor
If majority of charge carriers are holes in an extrinsic type
semiconductor ( p- type )
When host Si or Ge lattice is doped with trivalent impurities
(B,Ga,In , etc), the majority of the charge carriers are holes.( p-type)
Treated
Reduced in
with water atmosphere Pure Ge
Pure Ge
GeO2
(used as a
semiconductor)
Production of Solar grade Silicon from Quartz
Production of MG-Si from quartz
- The silica is reduced through a reaction with carbon in the
form of coal, charcoal and heating to 1500-2000°C in an
electrode arc furnace.
SiO2 + C → Si + CO2
- Liquid Si collects in the bottom of the furnace and is drained and
cooled.
- The resulting Si is metallurgical grade silicon (MG-Si) and is 98%
pure Si.