1.

Number Systems
 Common Number Systems
Used by Used in
System Base Symbols humans? computers?
Decimal 10 0, 1, … 9 Yes No
Binary 2 0, 1 No Yes
Octal 8 0, 1, … 7 No No
Hexa- 16 0, 1, … 9, No No
decimal A, B, … F
Quantities/Counting (1 of 3)
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
Quantities/Counting (2 of 3)
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Quantities/Counting (3 of 3)
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
18 10010 22 12
19 10011 23 13
20 10100 24 14
21 10101 25 15
22 10110 26 16
23 10111 27 17 Etc.
 Conversion Among Bases
• The possibilities:

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Quick Example

2510 = 110012 = 318 = 1916

Base/radix
Decimal to Decimal (just for fun)

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Weight

12510 => 5 x 100 = 5

2 x 101 = 20
1 x 102 = 100
125

Base
 Binary to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Decimal
• Technique
– Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight” of
the bit
– The weight is the position of the bit, starting from
0 on the right
– Add the results
 Example
Bit “0”

1010112 => 1 x 20 = 1
1 x 21 = 2
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 8
0 x 24 = 0
1 x 25 = 32
4310
 Octal to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Decimal
• Technique
– Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the “weight” of
the bit
– The weight is the position of the bit, starting from
0 on the right
– Add the results
 Example

7248 => 4 x 80 = 4
2 x 81 = 16
7 x 82 = 448
46810
Hexadecimal to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Decimal
• Technique
– Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is the “weight”
of the bit
– The weight is the position of the bit, starting from
0 on the right
– Add the results
 Example

ABC16 => C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12

B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560
274810
 Decimal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Binary
• Technique
– Divide by two, keep track of the remainder
– First remainder is bit 0 (LSB, least-significant bit)
– Second remainder is bit 1
– Etc.
 Example
12510 = ?2 2 125
2 62 1
2 31 0
2 15 1
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1

12510 = 11111012
 Octal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Binary
• Technique
– Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent
binary representation
 Example
7058 = ?2

7 0 5

111 000 101

7058 = 1110001012
Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Binary
• Technique
– Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit
equivalent binary representation
 Example
10AF16 = ?2

1 0 A F

0001 0000 1010 1111

10AF16 = 00010000101011112
 Decimal to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Octal
• Technique
– Divide by 8
– Keep track of the remainder
 Example
123410 = ?8

8 1234
8 154 2
8 19 2
8 2 3
0 2

123410 = 23228
Decimal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Hexadecimal
• Technique
– Divide by 16
– Keep track of the remainder
 Example
123410 = ?16

16 1234
16 77 2
16 4 13 = D
0 4

123410 = 4D216
 Binary to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Octal
• Technique
– Group bits in threes, starting on right
– Convert to octal digits
 Example
10110101112 = ?8

1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 13278
Binary to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Hexadecimal
• Technique
– Group bits in fours, starting on right
– Convert to hexadecimal digits
 Example
10101110112 = ?16

10 1011 1011

2 B B

10101110112 = 2BB16
Octal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Hexadecimal
• Technique
– Use binary as an intermediary
 Example
10768 = ?16

1 0 7 6

001 000 111 110

2 3 E

10768 = 23E16
Hexadecimal to Octal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Octal
• Technique
– Use binary as an intermediary
 Example
1F0C16 = ?8

1 F 0 C

0001 1111 0000 1100

1 7 4 1 4

1F0C16 = 174148
 Exercise – Convert ...
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
33
1110101
703
1AF

Don’t use a calculator!

Skip answer Answer

 Exercise –Answer
Convert …
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
33 100001 41 21
117 1110101 165 75
451 111000011 703 1C3
431 110101111 657 1AF
 Common Powers (1 of 2)
• Base 10 Power Preface Symbol Value
10-12 pico p .000000000001

10-9 nano n .000000001

10-6 micro  .000001

10-3 milli m .001

103 kilo k 1000

106 mega M 1000000

109 giga G 1000000000

1012 tera T 1000000000000
 Common Powers (2 of 2)
• Base 2 Power Preface Symbol Value
210 kilo k 1024

220 mega M 1048576

230 Giga G 1073741824

• What is the value of “k”, “M”, and “G”?

• In computing, particularly w.r.t. memory,
the base-2 interpretation generally applies
 Fractions
• Decimal to decimal (just for fun)

3.14 => 4 x 10-2 = 0.04

1 x 10-1 = 0.1
3 x 100 = 3
3.14
 Fractions
• Binary to decimal
10.1011 => 1 x 2-4 = 0.0625
1 x 2-3 = 0.125
0 x 2-2 = 0.0
1 x 2-1 = 0.5
0 x 20 = 0.0
1 x 21 = 2.0
2.6875
 Fractions
• Decimal to binary x
.14579
2
3.14579 0.29158
x 2
0.58316
x 2
1.16632
x 2
0.33264
x 2
0.66528
x 2
1.33056
11.001001... etc.
 Exercise – Convert ...
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
29.8
101.1101
3.07
C.82
Don’t use a calculator!

Skip answer Answer

 Exercise –Answer
Convert …
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
29.8 11101.110011… 35.63… 1D.CC…
5.8125 101.1101 5.64 5.D
3.109375 11.000111 3.07 3.1C
12.5078125 1100.10000010 14.404 C.82
 Complements
• They are used to simplify the subtraction operation
• Two types (for each base-r system)
– Diminishing radix complement (r-1 complement)
– Radix complement (r complement)

For n-digit number N

(r  1)  N
n
r-1 complement

r Nn r complement

55
 9’s and 10’s Complements
• 9’s complement of 674653
– 999999-674653 = 325346
• 9’s complement of 023421
– 999999-023421 = 976578
• 10’s complement of 674653
– 325346+1 = 325347
• 10’s complement of 023421
– 976578+1=976579
 1’s and 2’s Complements
• 1’s complement of 10111001
– 11111111 – 10111001 = 01000110
– Simply replace 1’s and 0’s
• 1’s complement of 10100010
– 01011101
• 2’s complement of 10111001
– 01000110 + 1 = 01000111
– Add 1 to 1’s complement
• 2’s complement of 10100010
– 01011101 + 1 = 01011110
Subtraction with Complements of
Unsigned
• M–N
– Add M(minuend ) to r’s complement of N
(subtrahend)
• Sum = M+(rn – N) = M – N+ rn
– If M > N, Sum will have an end carry rn , can be
discarded
– If M<N, Sum will not have an end carry and
• Sum = rn – (N – M) ( which is r’s complement of N – M)
• So M – N = – (r’s complement of Sum)
 Subtraction with Complements of
Unsigned
• 65438 – 5623 (using 10’s complement)
65438
10’s complement of 05623 +94377
159815
Discard end carry 105 -100000
Answer 59815
 Subtraction with Complements of
Unsigned
• 5623 – 65438 (using 10’s complement)
05623
10’s complement of 65438 +34562
40185
There is no end carry =>
-(10’s complement of 40185)
-59815
 Subtraction with Complements of
Unsigned
• 10110010 – 10011111 (using 2’s complement)
10110010
2’s complement of 10011111 +01100001
100010011
Discard end carry 2^8 -100000000
Answer 000010011

Binary Systems
 Subtraction with Complements of
Unsigned
• 10011111 -10110010 (using 2’s complement)
10011111
2’s complement of 10110010 +01001110
11101101
There is no end carry =>
-(2’s complement of 11101101)
Answer = -00010011
 1010.11 – 1001.01
Solution:
2’s complement of 1001.01 is 0110.11. Hence
                                 Minued -           1 0 1 0 . 1 1

2’s complement of subtrahend -            0 1 1 0 . 1 1

                            Carry over      1     0 0 0 1 . 1 0

After dropping the carry over we get the result of subtraction as 1.10.
10100.01 – 11011.10
Solution:
2’s complement of 11011.10 is 00100.10. Hence
                                   Minued -           1 0 1 0 0 . 0 1

   2’s complement of subtrahend -        0 1 1 0 0 . 1 0 

                    Result of addition -           1 1 0 0 0 . 1 1

As there is no carry over the result of subtraction is negative and is obtained by writing
the 2’s complement of 11000.11.
Hence the required result is – 00111.01.
 Subtraction with Complements of
Unsigned
• 10110010 – 10011111 (using 1’s complement)

Binary Systems
 Subtraction with Complements of
Unsigned
• 10011111 -10110010 (using 1’s complement)
 Signed Binary Numbers
• Unsigned representation can be used for
positive integers
• How about negative integers?
– Everything must be represented in binary numbers
– Computers cannot use – or + signs
 Negative Binary Numbers
• Three different systems have been used
1.Signed magnitude (used in ordinary arithmetic)
2. Signed compliment (used in computer)
(i) One’s complement
(ii) Two’s complement (most commonly used)

NOTE: For negative numbers the sign bit is always

1, and for positive numbers it is 0 in these three
systems
 Signed Magnitude
• The leftmost bit is the sign bit (0 is + and 1 is - ) and
the remaining bits hold the absolute magnitude of
the number
• Examples
• -47 = 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
• 47 = 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1

For 8 bits, we can represent the signed integers

–128 to +127
How about for N bits?

Binary Systems
 One’s complement
• Replace each 1 by 0 and each 0 by 1
• Example (-6)
– First represent 6 in binary format (00000110)
– Then replace (11111001)

Binary Systems
 Two’s complement
• Find one’s complement
• Add 1
• Example (-6)
– First represent 6 in binary format (00000110)
– One’s complement (11111001)
– Two’s complement (11111010)

Binary Systems
 Arithmetic Addition
• Usually represented by 2’s complement
Discard

+5 00000101 -5 11111011
+11 00001011 +11 00001011
+16 00010000 +6 100000110

+5 00000101 -5 11111011
-11 11110101 -11 11110101
-6 11111010 -16 111110000

Discard
Binary Systems
 Arithmetic subtraction
(+ or - A) – (+B) = (+ or – A) + (-B)

(+ or - A) – (-B) = (+ or – A) + (+B)

Example: (-6) – (-13) ?

Binary Systems
 Binary Code
In the coding, when numbers, letters or words are
represented by a specific group of symbols, it is said that
the number, letter or word is being encoded. The group
of symbols is called as a code. The digital data is
represented, stored and transmitted as group of binary
bits. This group is also called as binary code. The binary
code is represented by the number as well as
alphanumeric letter.
Advantages of Binary Code

Following is the list of advantages that binary code offers.

• Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications.

• Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications.
• Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital
circuits if we use the binary codes.
• Since only 0 & 1 are being used, implementation becomes
easy.
 Classification of codes
Weighted codes:Weighted binary codes are those binary
codes which obey the positional weight principle. Each
position of the number represents a specific weight. Several
systems of the codes are used to express the decimal digits 0
through 9. In these codes each decimal digit is represented by
a group of four bits.

Example: Binary, BCD, 8421, 2421

Non-weighted codes: In this type of binary codes, the
positional weights are not assigned.

Example: ex-3, gray (unit distance code)

Reflective code (self complementing): 2421, ex-3 , 8 4 -2 -1

Alpha numeric codes: ASCII

Error detection and correction codes: Hamming, parity

 Logic Families
RTL
DCTL
IIL
saturated DTL
HTL
Bipolar
TTL

ECL

Logic Family Non-saturated

Schottky TTL

PMOS

Unipolar NMOS

CMOS
 Integration Levels
• Gate/transistor ratio is roughly 1/10
– SSI < 12 gates/chip
– MSI < 100 gates/chip
– LSI …1K gates/chip
– VLSI …10K gates/chip
– ULSI …100K gates/chip
– GSI …1Meg gates/chip
 Moore’s law
• A prediction made by Moore (a co-founder of Intel) in
1965: “… a number of transistors to double every 2 years.”
 Characteristics of Logic Families

1. Speed
2. Fan-out
3. Fan-in
4. Power dissipation
5. Propagation delay
6. Noise Margin
7. Figure of Merit = propagation delay X Power dissipation
8. Logic Swing (VOH – VOL)
9. Breadth : No. of functions the we can take from the circuit
Resistor-Transistor
Logic (RTL)
• replace diode switch
with a transistor switch
• can be cascaded =
• large power draw
Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL)
• essentially diode logic with transistor amplification
• reduced power consumption
• faster than RTL

DL AND gate Saturating inverter

 TTL
Bipolar Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
• first introduced by in 1964 (Texas Instruments)
• TTL has shaped digital technology in many ways
• Standard TTL family (e.g. 7400) is obsolete
• Newer TTL families still used (e.g.
74ALS00)

Distinct features
• Multi-emitter transistors
• Totem-pole transistor
arrangement

2-input NAND
Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)

• PROS: Fastest logic family available (~1ns)

• CONS: low noise margin and high power dissipation

• Operated in emitter coupled geometry (recall

differential amplifier or emitter-follower), transistors
are biased and operate near their Q-point (never near
saturation!)
• Logic levels. “0”: –1.7V. “1”: –0.8V
• Such strange logic levels require extra effort when
interfacing to TTL/CMOS logic families.
Boolean Algebra
 The “WHY” slide
• Boolean Algebra
– When we learned numbers like 1, 2, 3, we also then learned
how to add, multiply, etc. with them. Boolean Algebra covers
operations that we can do with 0’s and 1’s. Computers do
these operations ALL THE TIME and they are basic building
blocks of computation inside your computer program.
• Axioms, laws, theorems
– We need to know some rules about how those 0’s and 1’s can
be operated on together. There are similar axioms to decimal
number algebra, and there are some laws and theorems that
are good for you to use to simplify your operation.
 How does Boolean Algebra fit into
the big picture?

• It is part of the Combinational Logic topics

(memoryless)
– Different from the Sequential logic topics (can store
information)

• Learning Axioms and theorems of Boolean algebra

• Allows you to design logic functions
• Allows you to know how to combine different logic gates
• Allows you to simplify or optimize on the complex operations
 Basic Definitions
• Binary Operators
– AND
z=x•y=xy z=1 if x=1 AND y=1
– OR
z=x+y z=1 if x=1 OR y=1
– NOT
z = x = x’ z=1 if x=0
• Boolean Algebra
– Binary Variables: only ‘0’ and ‘1’ values
– Algebraic Manipulation
 Boolean Algebra Postulates

• Commutative Law
x•y=y•x x+y=y+x
• Identity Element
x•1=x x+0=x
• Complement
x • x’ = 0 x + x’ = 1
 Boolean Algebra Theorems
• Duality
– The dual of a Boolean algebraic expression is
obtained by interchanging the AND & OR operators
and replacing the 1’s by 0’s and the 0’s by 1’s.
– x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z) Applied to a valid
equation produces
– x+(y•z)=(x+y)•(x+z) a valid equation
• Theorem 1
– x•x=x x+x=x
• Theorem 2
– x•0=0 x+1=1
 Boolean Algebra Theorems
• Theorem 3: Involution
– ( x’ )’ = x (x)=x
• Theorem 4: Associative & Distributive
– ( x•y)•z=x•( y•z)( x+y)+ z=x+( y+z)
– x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z)
x+(y•z)=(x+y)•(x+z)
• Theorem 5: DeMorgan
– ( x • y )’ = x’ + y’ ( x + y )’ = x’ • y’
– (x•y) =x +y (x+y) = x•y
• Theorem 6: Absorption
– x•(x+y)=x x+(x•y)=x
 Operator Precedence
• Parentheses
x [ y  z ( w  x )]
( . . . ) • ( . . .)
• NOT ( w  x)
x’ + y ( w  x)
• AND
z ( w  x)
x+x•y
• OR y  z ( w  x)
x [ y  z ( w  x )]
DeMorgan’s Theorem
a [b  c (d  e )]

a  [b  c (d  e )]

a  b ( c ( d  e ))

a  b (c  (d  e ))

a  b (c  ( d e))
a  b (c  d e) 96 / 28
 Useful laws and theorems
Identity: X+0=X Dual: X • 1 = X
Null: X+1=1 Dual: X • 0 = 0
Idempotent: X+X=X Dual: X • X = X
Involution: (X')' = X
Complementarity: X + X' = 1 Dual: X • X' = 0
Commutative: X + Y = Y + X Dual: X • Y = Y • X
Associative: (X+Y)+Z=X+(Y+Z) Dual: (X•Y)•Z=X•(Y•Z)
Distributive: X•(Y+Z)=(X•Y)+(X•Z) Dual: X+(Y•Z)=(X+Y)•(X+Z)
Uniting: X•Y+X•Y'=X Dual: (X+Y)•(X+Y')=X
Useful laws and theorems (con’t)
Absorption: X+X•Y=X Dual: X•(X+Y)=X
Absorption (#2): (X+Y')•Y=X•Y Dual: (X•Y')+Y=X+Y
de Morgan's: (X+Y+...)'=X'•Y'•... Dual: (X•Y•...)'=X'+Y'+...
Duality: (X+Y+...)D=X•Y•... Dual: (X•Y•...)D=X+Y+…

Multiplying & factoring: (X+Y)•(X'+Z)=X•Z+X'•Y

Dual: X•Y+X'•Z=(X+Z)•(X'+Y)
Consensus: (X•Y)+(Y•Z)+(X'•Z)= X•Y+X'•Z
Dual:
(X+Y)•(Y+Z)•(X'+Z)=(X+Y)•(X'+Z)
 Proving theorems
• Example 1: Prove the uniting theorem-- X•Y+X•Y'=X
Distributive X•Y+X•Y' = X•(Y+Y')
Complementarity = X•(1)
Identity =X

• Example 2: Prove the absorption theorem--

X+X•Y=X
Identity X+X•Y = (X•1)+(X•Y)
Distributive = X•(1+Y)
Null = X•(1)
Identity =X
 Proving theorems
• Example 3: Prove the consensus theorem-- (XY)+
(YZ)+(X'Z)= XY+X'Z
Complementarity XY+YZ+X'Z = XY+(X+X')YZ + X'Z
Distributive = XYZ+XY+X'YZ+X'Z
• Use absorption {AB+A=A} with A=XY and B=Z

= XY+X'YZ+X'Z
Rearrange terms = XY+X'ZY+X'Z
• Use absorption {AB+A=A} with A=X'Z and B=Y

XY+YZ+X'Z = XY+X'Z
 Boolean Functions
• Boolean Expression x y z F
Example: F = x + y’ z 0 0 0 0
• Truth Table 0 0 1 1
All possible combinations 0 1 0 0
of input variables 0 1 1 0
• Logic Circuit 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
x F 1 1 0 1
y
z 1 1 1 1
 Algebraic Manipulation
• Literal:
A single variable within a term that may be
complemented or not.
• Use Boolean Algebra to simplify Boolean
functions to produce simpler circuits
Example: Simplify to a minimum number of literals
F = x + x’ y ( 3 Literals)
= x + ( x’ y )
Distributive law (+ over •)
= ( x + x’ ) ( x + y )
=(1)(x+y)=x+y ( 2 Literals)
 Complement of a Function
• DeMorgan’s Theorm
F  A B C
F  A B C
F  A B C
• Duality & Literal Complement

F  A B C
F A B C
F  A B C
 Canonical Forms
• Minterm
A B C Minterm
– Product (AND function)
0 0 0 0 m0 ABC
– Contains all variables
1 0 0 1 m1 ABC
– Evaluates to ‘1’ for a
2 0 1 0 m2 ABC
specific combination
3 0 1 1 m3 ABC
Example
4 1 0 0 m4 ABC
A=0A B C
B = 0(0) • (0) • (0) 5 1 0 1 m5 ABC
C=0 6 1 1 0 m6 ABC
7 1 1 1 m7 ABC
1 • 1 • 1=1
 Canonical Forms
• Maxterm
A B C Maxterm
– Sum (OR function)
0 0 0 0 M0 A  B  C
– Contains all variables
1 0 0 1 M1 A  B  C
– Evaluates to ‘0’ for a
2 0 1 0 M2 A  B  C
specific combination
3 0 1 1 M3 A  B  C
Example
4 1 0 0 M4 A  B  C
A=1A B C
B = 1(1) + (1) + (1) 5 1 0 1 M5 A  B  C

C=1 6 1 1 0 M6 A  B  C
7 1 1 1 M7 A  B  C
0 + 0 + 0=0
 Canonical Forms
• Truth Table to Boolean Function

A B C F F  ABC  A BC  ABC  ABC

0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
 Standard Forms
• Sum of Products (SOP)
AB (C  C )
 A B (1)
F  ABC  ABC  A BC  ABC
 AB
AC ( B  B)
 AC
BC ( A  A)
 BC
F  BC ( A  A)  A B(C  C )  AC ( B  B)

F  BC  AB  AC
 Standard Forms
• Product of Sums (POS)
AB (C  C )

F  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC

BC ( A  A)

AC ( B  B)
F  AC ( B  B)  AB (C  C )  BC ( A  A)

F  AC  AB  BC
F  ( A  C )( A  B)( B  C )
 Two - Level Implementations
• Sum of Products (SOP) B’
C

F  BC  AB  AC A
B’ F
A
C
• Product of Sums (POS)
A
C
A
F  ( A  C )( A  B)( B  C ) B’ F
B’
C
 Logic Operators
• AND x y AND
0 0 0
x x•y 0 1 0
y 1 0 0
1 1 1

• NAND (Not AND)

x y NAND
0 0 1
x 0 1 1
x•y 1 0 1
y
1 1 0
 Logic Operators
• OR x y OR
0 0 0
x x+y 0 1 1
y 1 0 1
1 1 1

• NOR (Not OR)

x y NOR
0 0 1
x 0 1 0
x+y 1 0 0
y
1 1 0
 Logic Operators
• XOR (Exclusive-OR) x y XOR
0 0 0
x xÅ y 0 1 1
y xy+xy 1 0 1
1 1 0

• XNOR (Exclusive-NOR) x y XNOR

(Equivalence) 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
x xÅ y xy+xy 1 1 1
y x y
 Logic Operators
• NOT (Inverter) x NOT

0 1
x x
1 0

• Buffer
x Buffer

0 0
x x
1 1
 DeMorgan’s Theorem on Gates
• AND Gate
–F=x•y F = (x • y) F=x
+y

• OR Gate
–F=x+y F = (x + y) F=x
•y

 Change the “Shape” and “bubble” all lines

 Homework
• Mano
2-4 Reduce the following Boolean expressions to the indicated
number of literals:
(a) A’C’ + ABC + AC’ to three literals
(b) (x’y’ + z)’ + z + xy + wz to three literals
(c) A’B (D’ + C’D) + B (A + A’CD) to one literal
(d) (A’ + C) (A’ + C’) (A + B + C’D) to four literals

2-5 Find the complement of F = x + yz; then show that

FF’ = 0 and F + F’ = 1

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 Homework
2-6 Find the complement of the following expressions:
(a) xy’ + x’y (b) (AB’ + C)D’ + E
(c) (x + y’ + z) (x’ + z’) (x + y)

2-8 List the truth table of the function:

F = xy + xy’ + y’z
2-9 Logical operations can be performed on strings of bits by
considering each pair of corresponding bits separately
(this is called bitwise operation). Given two 8-bit strings
A = 10101101 and B = 10001110, evaluate the 8-bit result
after the following logical operations: (a) AND, (b) OR,
(c) XOR, (d) NOT A, (e) NOT B.

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 Homework

2-10 Draw the logic diagrams for the following Boolean

expressions:
(a) Y = A’B’ + B (A + C) (b) Y = BC + AC’
(c) Y = A + CD (d) Y = (A + B) (C’ + D)

2-12 Simplify the Boolean function T1 and T2 to a minimum

number of literals. A B C T T
1 2

0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1
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 Homework

2-15 Given the Boolean function

F = xy’z + x’y’z + w’xy + wx’y + wxy
(a) Obtain the truth table of the function.
(b) Draw the logic diagram using the original Boolean
expression.
(c) Simplify the function to a minimum number of literals
using Boolean algebra.
(d) Obtain the truth table of the function from the
simplified expression and show that it is the same as
the one in part (a)
(e) Draw the logic diagram from the simplified expression
and compare the total number of gates with the
diagram of part (b).

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 Homework

2-18 Convert the following to the other canonical form:

(a) F (x, y, z) = ∑ (1, 3, 7)
(b) F (A, B, C, D) = ∏ (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12)
2-19 Convert the following expressions into sum of products
and product of sums:
(a) (AB + C) (B + C’D)
(b) x’ + x (x + y’) (y + z’)

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BCD Adder
A half adder is implemented with XOR and AND gates. A full adder is implemented with  two
half adders and one OR gate. The propagation delay of an XOR gate is twice that of an
AND/OR gate. The propagation delay of an AND/OR gate is 1.2 microseconds. A 4-bit-ripple-
carry binary adder is implemented by using four full adders. The total propagation time of
this 4-bit binary adder in microseconds is ______.
4-bit comparator
 Parity Generator and checker
• What is Parity Bit?
• The parity generating technique is one of the
most widely used error detection techniques
for the data transmission. In digital systems,
when binary data is transmitted and
processed , data may be subjected to noise so
that such noise can alter 0s (of data bits) to 1s
and 1s to 0s.
• Hence, parity bit is added to the word containing
data in order to make number of 1s either even or
odd. Thus it is used to detect errors , during the
transmission of binary data .The message containing
the data bits along with parity bit is transmitted
from transmitter node to receiver node.
• At the receiving end, the number of 1s in the
message is counted and if it doesn’t match with the
transmitted one, then it means there is an error in
the data.
Parity checker