Over all concept of this chapter

Non-traditional Machining Processes

 Ultrasonic Machining
 Abrasive Water Jet Machining
 Chemical Machining
 Electro-chemical Machining
 Electro-chemical Grinding
 Electro discharge Machining
 Laser Beam Machining
 Case Studies
 Overall Process comparisons
 Non-traditional Machining Processes
Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups:
a) primary manufacturing processes
Provide basic shape and size
a) secondary manufacturing processes
Provide final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface
characteristics Material removal processes once again can be divided into
two groups
1. Conventional Machining Processes
2. Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes or non-conventional
Manufacturing processes
Conventional Machining Processes mostly remove material in the form of
chips by applying forces on the work material with a wedge shaped
cutting tool that is harder than the work material under machining
condition.
 Non-traditional Machining Processes
The major characteristics of conventional machining are:
Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation

Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces – energy

domain can be classified as mechanical
Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under
machining conditions

Non-conventional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes

that remove excess material by various techniques involving mechanical,
thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these energies but do
not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing
processes.
 Non-traditional Machining Processes
The major characteristics of Non-conventional machining

Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip

formation may take place. For example in AJM, chips are of
microscopic size and in case of Electrochemical machining material
removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.
In NTM, there may not be a physical tool present. For example in laser jet
machining, machining is carried out by laser beam. However in
Electrochemical Machining there is a physical tool that is very much
required for machining
In NTM, the tool need not be harder than the work piece material. For
example, in EDM, copper is used as the tool material to machine
hardened steels.
Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily use mechanical energy to provide
material removal. They use different energy domains to provide
machining. For example, in USM, AJM, WJM mechanical energy is
used to machine material, whereas in ECM electrochemical dissolution
constitutes material removal.
 Non traditional machining methods are typically
divided into the following categories:
Mechanical -
 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
 Water Jet Machining (WJM)
 Abrasive water jet machining (EWJM)
Electrical
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
 Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
 Electro Jet Drilling (EJD)
Thermal
 Electro-discharge machining (EDM)
 Laser Jet Machining (LJM)
 Electro beam machining (EBM)
Chemical
 Chemical Milling, Photochemical Machining
 Chemical Milling (CHM)
 Photochemical Milling (PCM)
 Why NTM needs?
• Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to
machine by traditional machining processes such as
turning, drilling, shaping and milling.
• When the shape of the part is too complex
• Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for
traditional machining
 5.1 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM

• In die-sinking EDM systems, the electrode (cutting tool) and work-

piece are held by the machine tool. A power supply controls the
electrical discharges and movement of the electrode in relation to
the work-piece.
• During operation the work-piece is submerged in a bath of
dielectric fluid (non-conducting). (Die-Sinking EDM is also called
Sinker, Conventional, Plunge or Vertical EDM).

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 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM

Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge-machining process.

Based on erosion of metals by spark discharge. The cavity is is formed by the shape of the electrode.
schematic of an EDM process
 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM
• During normal operation the electrode never touches the work-piece, but is
separated by a small spark gap.
• The electrode (plunger) can be a complex shape, and can be moved in X, Y,
and Z axes, as well as rotated, enabling more complex shapes with accuracy
better than one mil. (this is called CNC plunger EDM)
• Plunge EDM is best used in tool and die manufacturing, or for creating
extremely accurate molds for injection-molding plastic parts.

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 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM
• The dielectric fluid in EDM performs the following functions:
 It acts as an insulator until sufficiently high potential is reached
 Acts as a coolant medium and reduces the extremely high temp.
in the arc gap.
 More importantly, the dielectric fluid is pumped through the arc
gap to flush away the eroded particles between the work-piece
and the electrode which is critical to high metal removal rates
and good machining conditions.
Note;-A relatively soft graphite or metallic electrode can easily
machine hardened tool steels or tungsten carbide. One of the many
attractive benefits of using the EDM process.
 Electrical Discharge Machining- EDM
• Surface finish is affected by gap voltage, discharge current, and
frequency
• The EDM process can be used on any material that is an electrical
conductor
• The EDM process does not involve mechanical energy, therefore,
materials with high hardness and strength can easily be machined.
• Applications include producing die cavity for large components,
deep small holes, complicated internal cavities
• EDM is not a fast method; some jobs can take days to produce
holes, so its use is limited to jobs that cannot easily be done in other
ways (e.g. oblong slots or complex shapes, sometimes in very hard
material).
• Note too the work must be conductive so it does not work on
materials such as glass or ceramic, or most plastics.
 Cont…
Typical use Hard, machining of brittle metals, tool making

Tool Carbon, zinc, brass, copper, silver-tungsten or copper-tungsten

Dielectric medium Distilled water (DI), petroleum oils, silicones, triethylene, glycol
water mixtures

Aspect ratio of As high as 100:1

holes

Surface finish 1 to 3 µm but even 0.25 µm has been reported

Gap size/voltage 25 µm/80 V

Removal rate 0.001 to 0.1 cm 3/hr

Workpiece Conductor
 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
• Schematic illustration of the wire
EDM process. As much as 50 hours
of machining can be performed with
one reel of wire, which is then
discarded.

Typical EDM-WC products.

Metal removal rate :
MRR  4 10 4 ITw1.23
where
I  current in amperes
Tw  melting temperature of workpiece, C

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
 Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
• The vertical, horizontal and slanted cutting with the µ-EDM-WC
tool has successfully fabricated complex features and parts.
• An example is the impressive Chinese pagoda (1.25 mm × 1.75
mm) shown here where vertical and horizontal µ-EDM-WC cuts
are illustrated

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5.2 Chemical machining
Local melting of material by suitable diluent.
• Machining of metal materials,
• Removing speed of material independence on
hardness and on toughness,
• Surfaces with complicated shape with high accuracy
and quality,
• Here is no originated heat and mechanical influence
area,
• Large areas – more economical than milling
Chemical machining
1 – base material,
2 – mask,
3 – holes carved out of
mask,

In the place of holes the

material is melted by
influence of diluents.
 Material machinability
Four groups of materials by chemical machinability:
• Copper, bronze – easy they are melted, good
machinability by chemical machining,
• nickel, zinc, aluminium
• manganese, molybdenum,
• chrome, gold, wolfram – they are hard melted, bad
machinability by chemical machining
 Diluents for chemical machining
• Ferrous metals – different acids,

• copper, alloys of copper, heavy metals – chloride of

ferrum FeCl3,

• Aluminium, alloys of aluminium, light metals –

caustic soda NaOH
Workpiece preparation for chemical
machining
• Grease removal and surface cleaning – removing the
allochemicals from surface and oxidic coats too (Al
alloys – AL2O3 coat), dipping into 5% medium NaOH
and next into 30% medium of acid of nitride,
• steeping – increasing of mask adhesion, dipping into
medium H2SO4
• masking – coating resisted on influence of diluent
(resin, enamel) thickness till 2 mm.
Workpiece preparation for chemical
machining
• Mask drying – mask coating is drying 6 till 8
hours, it can be accelerated in the furnace
(small work pieces),
• Engraving of mask – into drying mask are
created holes (hand engraving, engraving by
laser ...),
 Time needed for machining
• It is independence on the size of the machined surface,

• It is depend on depth of machining only,

• Speed of outline 0,01 till 0,5 mm/min.,

• mask resisted to outlining approximately 8 hours.

 Mask undercutting
Speed of outline in homogenne material is the same in
all directions. Rate of undercutting is approximately
the same as depth of outlining.
 Mask undercutting
• Is not possible to make shape rims,
• In immersion into etching pool is needed to assure
that origin gas is not to mass in the place of undercut
(scaling of mask, non-constant speed of
undercutting....), side long immersion, mixturing,
• Mixturing of etching pool:
– Washing off etching impurities,
– Asked concentration of etchant in the place of etching,
– Outflow of gas bubbles.
Spraying of etching solution
 Kinds of chemical machining
• Chemical clipping,
• chemical milling (deeping),
• Chemical engraving
• chemical sharping,
• Chemical polishing,
• Machining by active substance,
• Photochemical machining,
• termic removing of burrs.
 Chemical clipping
• Thin plates,
• Completely component is sinking,
• Small, shape difficult components
Example:
• Plotters of shavers
 Chemical milling
Accuracy shaping of difficult big shape surfaces.
Speed of removing is moving round 0,025 mm/min.
Originated undercutting, is necessary to speculate with
undercutting in the mask production.
Dimensions accuracy is given by thickness of removing
layer. Roughness is between Ra=0,75 to Ra=3,8.
 Chemical milling
Using of chemical milling:
• aerial and cosmic industry – local releasing of
casts and forgings of light and high strength
alloys,
• Small metal components of high strength
material when is not economical to produce
dies.
 Chemical engraving, grinding,
polishing
• engraving – dimension of picturing is small for using of
mechanical engraving – matrixs of post marks,

• grinding – very accurated shapes (accuracy under

1mm), low roughness (Ra 0,01),

• polishing – still softer than grinding, using in small and

shape difficult components that by mechanical kind is
not possible to polish.
 Machining by active substance
Machining shape difficult surfaces.
Semi-solid substance of cellulose (electro gel)
impregnated by acid is attach to the workpiece
surface. In the place of contact the workpiece is
melted.
Is possible to achieve step by step removing until depth
10 mm. Dimension accuracy is from 0,02 to 0,07 mm.
For acceleration of process is possible to connected
electric voltage until 10V.
Machining by active substance
 Photochemical machining
Mask is created by photographic kind.

Using in production:
• Masks of TV set and screening,
• Code disks,
• Optical divider,
• gasket,
• Ornamental object,
• Semiconductor components.
 Photochemical machining
• Patern of production – laser beam creating the sign
in the photographical film. This picture (master) is
frequently applied to photo tool. (patern).
• Preparation of surface – surface must be cleaned,
grease removing, eventually to pickle,
• Coating of photoresist – it is polymer sensitive to
ultraviolet emission is necessary to dry him.
• Processing of photoresist – through the pattern is
photoresist emissed by light of suitable wave length
(UV) and is created mask (positive, negative).
 Photochemical machining
Advantage of photochemical machining:
• Low costs of tools,
• Low costs of modification,
• Simply transmission to series production,
• Properties of the base material are not damages,
• No originated burrs.
 Chemical-Machining

Figure 27.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical-machining process. Note that no forces or
machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by chemical
machining; note the undercut.
 Electrochemical Machining

Figure 27.6 Schematic illustration of the electrochemical machining process.

 Parts Made by Electrochemical
Machining

Figure 27.7 Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of
nickel alloy of 360 HB. Note the shape of the electrode on the right. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-
steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.
 Knee Implants

Figure 27.8 (a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top
pieces) with an ultra-high molecular-weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces). (b)
Cross-section of the ECM process as applies to the metal implant. Source: Courtesy of
Biomet, Inc.
Electrochemical-Grinding Process

Figure 27.9 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-

grinding process. (b) Thin slot produced on a round nickel-alloy
tube by this process.
 Electrical-Discharge Machining Process

Figure 27.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process. This is one of the most
widely used machining processes, particularly for die-sinking applications. (b) Examples of cavities produced by
the electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies for
extruding the aluminum piece shown in front (see also Fig. 19.9b). (c) A spiral cavity produced by EDM using a
slowly rotating electrode similar to a screw thread. (d) Holes in a fuel-injection nozzle made by EDM; the material
is heat-treated steel. Source: (b) Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
Electron-Beam Machining Process

Figure 27.15 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process.

Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so work piece size is limited to the
size of the vacuum chamber.
 Water-Jet Cutting Process

Figure 27.16 (a) Schematic illustration of the water-jet machining process. (b) A computer-
controlled water-jet cutting machine cutting a granite plate. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic
parts produced by the water-jet cutting process. (Enlarged on next slide). Source: Courtesy of
Possis Corporation
Nonmetallic Parts Made by Water-Jet
Cutting

Enlargement of Fig. 27.16c. Examples of various nonmetallic parts produced by the water-
jet cutting process. Source: Courtesy of Possis Corporation
 5.3 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Introduction
 A stream of abrasive grains (Al2O3 or SiC) is carried by high pressure
gas or air (compressed).
• Impinges on the work surface at very high velocity through a nozzle of
0.3 to 0.5 mm diameter.
 Sand Blasting (SB) - a similar process
 The major differences between are SB and AJM
(i) smaller diameter abrasives
(ii) a more finely controlled delivery system
 Material removal – by mechanical abrasion action of the high velocity
abrasive particles.
 Best suited for hole drilling in super hard materials.
 Typically used to cut, clean, peen, de burr, de flash and etch glass,
ceramics and other hard materials.

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Machining System

46
 Cont.…
 A gas (Nitrogen, CO2 or air) is supplied at 2 – 8 kg/cm2
 Gas passes through a mixing chamber after filtration and
regulation.
 In the mixing chamber, abrasive particles (10 – 40 m) are
present and vibrated at 50 Hz.
 Amplitude of vibration – to control the feed rate of abrasives.
 (Gas + abrasives) - passed through a 0.45 mm diameter tungsten
carbide nozzle at a speed of 150 – 300 m/s.
 The nozzle is directed over the area to be machined.

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 Cont.…
 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC) powders are
used for heavy cleaning, cutting and debarring.
 Magnesium carbonate is recommended for use in light cleaning
and etching.
 Sodium bicarbonate – fine cleaning and cutting of soft materials.
 Commercial grade powders are not suitable – b’cos their sizes are
not well classified. Also, they may contain silica which can cause a
health hazard.
 Abrasive powders are not reused. B’cos, contaminations and worn
grits will reduce the machining rate (MRR).
 The nozzle stand off distance is 0.81 mm.

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 Cont...
 Relative motion between nozzle and workpiece – can be manual
 Or automatically controlled using cam drives, tracer mechanisms
or using computer controlled according to the cut geometry
required.
 Masks of copper, glass or rubber – can be used to concentrate the
jet stream of abrasives to a confined area on the workpiece.
 Intricate and precise shapes can be produced using masks with
corresponding contours.
 Dust removal or collecting equipment must be incorporated to
protect the environment.

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 Material Removal

 The abrasive particles from the nozzle follow parallel paths for a short distance
 Then the abrasive jet flares outward like a narrow cone.
 When the sharp-edged abrasive particles of Al2O3 or SiC hit a brittle and
fragile material at high speed, tiny brittle fractures are created from which
small particles dislodge.
 The dislodged particles are carried away by the air or gas.

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 Material Removal Rate
 Material or Volumetric Removal Rate (MRR or VRR) is given by the formula

51
 Process Parameters
 MRR, machining accuracy, surface roughness and nozzle wear are influenced
by
 Size and distance of the nozzle.
 Composition, strength, size, and shape of abrasives
 Flow rate
 Composition, pressure, and velocity of the carrier gas.
 MRR is mainly dependent on the flow rate and size of abrasives.
 Larger grain sizes produce greater removal rates.
 At a particular pressure, the VRR increases with the abrasive flow rate up to an
optimum value and then decreases with any further increase in flow rate.
 The mass flow rate of the gas decreases with an increase in the abrasive flow
rate
 Hence the mixing ratio increases and causes a decrease in the removal rate
because of the decreasing energy available for material removal.

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 Process Parameters – Contd.
 Typical MRR is 16.4 mm3/min when cutting glass.
 Cutting rates for metals vary from 1.6 to 4.1 mm3/min.
 For harder ceramics, cutting rates are about 50 percent higher
than those for glass – 24.6 mm3/min.
 The minimum width of cut can be 0.13 mm.
 Tolerances are typically within  0.05 mm by using good fixation
and motion control.
 Finished surface has a random or matte texture.
 Attainable surface roughness - 0.2 to 1.5 µm using 10 and 50 µm
particles, respectively.
 Taper is present in deep cuts.
 High nozzle pressures result in a greater removal rate, but the
nozzle life is decreased.
53
Process Characteristics

54
 Applications
 Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring, polishing,
and radiusing.
 Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small precision parts that require
a burr-free finish, such as hydraulic valves, aircraft fuel systems, and medical
appliances.
 Machining intricate shapes or holes in sensitive, brittle, thin, or difficult-to-
machine materials.
 Insulation stripping and wire cleaning without affecting the conductor.
 Micro-deburring of hypodermic needles.
 Frosting glass and trimming of circuit boards, hybrid circuit resistors,
capacitors, silicon, and gallium.
 Removal of films and delicate cleaning of irregular surfaces because the
abrasive stream is able to follow contours.

55
 Advantages
 Because AJM is a cool machining process, it is best suited for machining
brittle and heat-sensitive materials like glass, quartz, sapphire, and ceramics.
 The process is used for machining superalloys and refractory materials.
 It is not reactive with any workpiece material.
 No tool changes are required.
 Intricate parts of sharp corners can be machined.
 The machined materials do not experience hardening.
 No initial hole is required for starting the operation as required by wire EDM.
 Material utilization is high.
 It can machine thin materials.

56
 Limitations
 The removal rate is slow.
 Stray cutting can’t be avoided (low accuracy of  0.1 mm).
 The tapering effect may occur especially when drilling in metals.
 The abrasive may get impeded in the work surface.
 Suitable dust-collecting systems should be provided.
 Soft materials can’t be machined by the process.
 Silica dust may be a health hazard.
 Ordinary shop air should be filtered to remove moisture and oil.

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