CS8351 DIGITAL PRINCIPLES

AND SYSTEM DESIGN

Computers are used in scientific calculations,
commercial and business data processing, air
traffic control, space guidance, the educational
field, and many other areas.

flexibility, general-purpose digital computers

can perform a wide variety of information-
processing tasks.

Telephone switching exchanges, digital

voltmeters, digital counters, electronic
calculators, and digital displays
UNIT I BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND
LOGIC GATES
Number Systems - Arithmetic Operations -
Binary Codes- Boolean Algebra and Logic
Gates - Theorems and Properties of Boolean
Algebra - Boolean Functions - Canonical
and Standard Forms - Simplification of
Boolean Functions using Karnaugh Map -
Logic Gates–NAND and NOR
Implementations.
UNIT II COMBINATIONAL LOGIC

Combinational Circuits – Analysis and

Design Procedures - Binary Adder-
Subtractor - Decimal Adder - Binary
Multiplier - Magnitude Comparator -
Decoders – Encoders – Multiplexers -
Introduction to HDL – HDL Models of
Combinational circuits
 UNIT III SYNCHRONOUS
SEQUENTIAL LOGIC
Sequential Circuits - Storage Elements:
Latches , Flip-Flops - Analysis of Clocked
Sequential Circuits - State Reduction and
Assignment - Design Procedure - Registers
and Counters - HDL Models of Sequential
Circuits.
 UNIT IV ASYNCHRONOUS
SEQUENTIAL LOGIC
Analysis and Design of Asynchronous
Sequential Circuits – Reduction of State
and Flow Tables – Race-free State
Assignment – Hazards
 UNIT V MEMORY AND
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC

RAM – Memory Decoding – Error

Detection and Correction - ROM -
Programmable Logic Array –
Programmable Array Logic – Sequential
Programmable Devices.
 Number Systems
• Decimal numbers (09)

• Binary Numbers (0,1)

• Octal Numbers (07)

• Hexadecimal Numbers (015)

 Common Number Systems

Used by Used in
System Base Symbols humans? computers?

Decimal 10 0, 1, … 9 Yes No
Binary 2 0, 1 No Yes
Octal 8 0, 1, … 7 No No
Hexa- 16 0, 1, … 9, No No
decimal A, B, … F
Quantities/Counting (1 of 3)
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
Quantities/Counting (2 of 3)
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal

8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Quantities/Counting (3 of 3)
Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
18 10010 22 12
19 10011 23 13
20 10100 24 14
21 10101 25 15
22 10110 26 16
23 10111 27 17
 Base-r system

an.rn + an-1.rn-1 + an-2.rn-2 +........ a0.r0 + a-1.r-1 + a-2.r-2

+ a-3 . r-3 + a-m.r-m+
 Conversion Among Bases
• The possibilities:

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Example

2510 = 110012 = 318 = 1916

Base
Decimal to Decimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Weight

12510 => 5 x 100 = 5

2 x 101 = 20
1 x 102 = 100
125

Base
Binary to Decimal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Decimal
– Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the “weight”
of the bit
– The weight is the position of the bit, starting
from 0 on the right
– Add the results
 Example
Bit “0”

1010112 => 1 x 20 = 1
1 x 21 = 2
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 8
0 x 24 = 0
1 x 25 = 32
4310
 Octal to Decimal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Decimal
– Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the “weight”
of the bit
– The weight is the position of the bit, starting
from 0 on the right
– Add the results
 Example

7248 => 4 x 80 = 4
2 x 81 = 16
7 x 82 = 448
46810
Hexadecimal to Decimal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Decimal
– Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is the
“weight” of the bit
– The weight is the position of the bit, starting
from 0 on the right
– Add the results
 Example

ABC16 => C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12

B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560
274810
Decimal to Binary
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Binary
– Divide by two, keep track of the remainder
– First remainder is bit 0 (LSB, least-significant
bit)
– Second remainder is bit 1
– Etc.
 Example
12510 = ?2 2 125
2 62 1
2 31 0
2 15 1
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1

12510 = 11111012
 Octal to Binary
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Binary
– Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit equivalent
binary representation
 Example
7058 = ?2

7 0 5

111 000 101

7058 = 1110001012
Hexadecimal to Binary
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Binary
– Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit
equivalent binary representation
 Example
10AF16 = ?2

1 0 A F

0001 0000 1010 1111

10AF16 = 00010000101011112
 Decimal to Octal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Octal
– Divide by 8
– Keep track of the remainder
 Example
123410 = ?8

8 1234
8 154 2
8 19 2
2 3

123410 = 23228
Decimal to Hexadecimal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Decimal to Hexadecimal
– Divide by 16
– Keep track of the remainder
 Example
123410 = ?16

16 1234
16 77 2
4 13 = D

123410 = 4D216
 Binary to Octal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Octal
– Group bits in threes, starting on right
– Convert to octal digits
 Example
10110101112 = ?8

1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7

10110101112 = 13278
Binary to Hexadecimal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Binary to Hexadecimal
– Group bits in fours, starting on right
– Convert to hexadecimal digits
 Example
10101110112 = ?16

10 1011 1011

2 B B

10101110112 = 2BB16
Octal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Octal to Hexadecimal
– Use binary as an intermediary
 Example
10768 = ?16

1 0 7 6

001 000 111 110

2 3 E

10768 = 23E16
Hexadecimal to Octal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Octal
– Use binary as an intermediary
 Example
1F0C16 = ?8

1 F 0 C

0001 1111 0000 1100

1 7 4 1 4

1F0C16 = 174148
 Binary Addition (1 of 2)
• Two 1-bit values

A B A+ B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 10
“two”
 Binary Addition (2 of 2)
• Two n-bit values
– Add individual bits
– Propagate carries
– E.g.,
1 1
10101 21
+11001 + 25
101110 46
 Multiplication (1 of 3)
• Decimal

35
x 105
175
000
35
3675
 Multiplication (2 of 3)
• Binary, two 1-bit values

A B AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 Multiplication (3 of 3)
• Binary, two n-bit values
– As with decimal values
– E.g.,
1110
x 1011
1110
1110
0000
1110
10011010
 Fractions
• Decimal to decimal

3.14 => 4 x 10-2 = 0.04

1 x 10-1 = 0.1
3 x 100 = 3
3.14
 Fractions
• Binary to decimal
10.1011 => 1 x 2-4 = 0.0625
1 x 2-3 = 0.125
0 x 2-2 = 0.0
1 x 2-1 = 0.5
0 x 20 = 0.0
1 x 21 = 2.0
2.6875
 Fractions
.14579
• Decimal to binary x 2
3.14579 0.29158
x 2
0.58316
x 2
1.16632
x 2
0.33264
x 2
0.66528
x 2
1.33056
11.001001... etc.
 Complements
They are used in digital computers for subtraction operation
and for logic manipulation.

2’s complement & 1’s complement-Binary Numbers

10’s complement & 9’s complement- Decimal numbers

9’s complement of N = (10n-1) – N (N is a decimal #)

1’s complement of N = (2n-1) – N (N is a binary #)
1’s complement can be formed by changing 1’s to 0’s and
0’s to 1’s
10’s complement of N = 10n– N (N is a decimal #)
2’s complement of a number= (2n) – N=
1’s Complement+1
9’s complement of N = (10n-1) – N (N is a decimal #)
The 9’s complement of 12345 = (105 – 1) – 12345 =
87654
The 9’s complement of 012345 = (106 – 1) – 012345
= 987654
The 10’s complement of 739821 = 106– 739821 =
260179
The 10’s complement of 2500 = 104 – 2500 = 7500
1’s and 2’s Complements:

The 1’s complement of 1101011 = 0010100

The 2’s complement of 0110111 = 1001001

Find the 1’s and 2’s-complement of 10000000

Answer: 01111111 and 10000000
Find the 9’s and 10’s-complement of 00000000
Answer: 99999999 and 00000000
 Subtraction using complements
1’s Complement: (A-B)
• Take 1’s complement of B.
• Add with A.
• If carry is generated then the result is positive
and true form. Add carry to the result and get
the final result.
• If carry is not generated then the result is
negative and in the 1’s complement form.
2’s Complement: (A-B)
• Take 2’s complement of B.
• Add with A.
• If carry is generated then the result is positive
and true form. In this case carry is ignored.
• If carry is not generated then the result is
negative and in the 2’s complement form.
 Subtraction Using Complements
Subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M –
N in base r:
1. Add M to the r’s complement of N: M + (rn – N)
2. If M≥N, the sum will produce an end carry and is
equal to rn that can be discarded. The result is then
M – N.
3. If M <N, the sum will not produce an end carry
and is equal to rn – (N – M)
Boolean algebra - a mathematical system defined with set
of elements (B → 0, 1), set of operators (+ & .), and
various unproved postulates or axioms.

set of elements: collection of objects which have common

property.
set of operators:
- defined on the set of elements.
- is a rule which assigns unique element in the set for each
pair of elements from the set.
postulates:
- basic assumptions from which rules, theorems, properties
of a system are deduced.
A set of elements B and two binary operators ‘+’ and ‘.’
Closure w. r. t. the operator + (.)
For x, y Є B, x + y Є B

An identity element w. r. t. + (.)

0+x=x+0=x
1 . x = x . 1= x

Commutative w. r. t. + (.)
x+y=y+x
x.y=y.x
‘.’ is Distributive over ‘+’:
x . (y + z) = (x . y) + (x . z)

‘+’ is Distributive over ‘.’:

x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z)

For every x Є B, there exists xʹЄ B called as

complement such that
x + xʹ = 1 x . xʹ = 0

There exists at least two elements x, y Є B such that x

≠ y.
Postulates and Theorems of Boolean Algebra
a) x+ x = x

x+ x
= (x+ x) . 1 --------postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]
= (x+ x). (x+ x’) ------- 5(a) [ x+ x’ = 1]
= x+ xx’ ---------------- 4(b) [ x+yz = (x+y)
(x+z)]
= x+ 0 ------------------ 5(b) [ x. x’ = 0 ]
= x ----------------------2(a) [ x+0 = x ]
x. x = x

x. x
= (x. x) + 0 ---- by postulate 2(a) [ x+ 0 = x ]
= (x. x) + (x. x’) ----------- 5(b) [ x. x’ = 0]
= x ( x+ x’) ----------- 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x (1) ------------------- 5(a) [ x+ x’ = 1 ]
= x ------------------- 2(b) [ x.1 = x ]
a) x+ 1 = 1

x+ 1 =
1 . (x+ 1) ------- by postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]
= (x+ x’). (x+ 1) ---------------- 5(a) [ x+ x’ = 1]
= x+ x’.1 ----------------4(b) [ x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)]
= x+ x’ ------------------- 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]
= 1 ------------------- 5(a) [ x+ x’= 1]
(x’)’ = x
From postulate 5, we have x+ x’ = 1 and x. x’ = 0,
which defines the complement of x. The
complement of x’ is x and is also (x’)’.

Therefore, since the complement is unique, (x’)’ = x.

 Absorption Theorem:
a) x+ xy = x

x+ xy
= x. 1 + xy ------ by postulate 2(b) [ x. 1 = x ]
= x (1+ y) ------------- 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x (1) ----------------- by theorem 2(a) [x+ 1 = x]
= x. ------------------- by postulate 2(a) [x. 1 = x]
x. (x+ y) = x

x. (x+ y)
= x. x+ x. y ----------- 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x + x.y --------------- by theorem 1(b) [x. x = x]
= x. ------------------- by theorem 4(a) [x+ xy = x]
x+ x’y = x+ y

x+ x’y
= x+ xy+ x’y ------- by theorem 4(a) [x+ xy = x]
= x+ y (x+ x’) -----
by postulate 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= x+ y (1) ------------------- 5(a) [x+ x’ = 1]
= x+ y ------------------- 2(b) [x. 1= x]
x. (x’+y) = xy

x. (x’+y) = x.x’+ xy
postulate 4(a) [ x (y+z) = (xy)+ (xz)]
= 0+ xy ------------------- 5(b) [x. x’ = 0]
= xy. ------------------- 2(a) [x+ 0= x]
 DeMorgan’s Theorems:
The first theorem states that the complement of a
product is equal to the sum of the complements.
(AB)’ = A’+ B’

The second theorem states that the complement of

a sum is equal to the product of the complements.
(A+ B)’ = A’. B’
 Consensus Theorem
• AB+ A’C+ BC = AB+ A’C

Dual form of consensus theorem is stated as,

• (A+B) (A’+C) (B+C) = (A+B) (A’+C)
1. x (x’+y)
2. x+ x’y
3. (x+ y) (x+ y’)
4. xy + x’z + yz
5. AB + (AC)' + AB’C (AB + C)
6. (x’+ y) (x+ y)
7. xy+ xyz+ xy (w+ z)
8. xy+ xyz+ xyz’+ x’yz
9. xyz+ xy’z+ xyz’
1. w’xyz’+ xyz’+ xy’z’+ xy’z
2. x’y’z’+ x’y’z+ x’yz’+ x’yz+ xy’z’
3. [ xy’ (z+ wy) + x’y’] z
4. x’yz+ xy’z’+ x’y’z’+ xy’z+ xyz
5. [(xy)’+ x’+ xy]’
6. [ xy+ xz]’+ x’y’z
7. xy+ xy’( x’z’)’
8. [( xy’+ xyz)’+ x (y+ xy’)]’
9. [ (xy+ z’) ((x+ y)’+z) ]’
10.(x+ y) (x’z’+ z) (y’+ xz)’
 COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
• (A+ B+ C+ D+ … + F)’ = A’ B’ C’ D’ … F’
• (A B C D … F)’ = A’+B’+ C’+ D’+ … +F’.

Find the complement of the following functions,

• F= x’yz’+ x’y’z
• F= (xy + y’z + xz) x.
• F= xy’+ x’y
 Minterms and Maxterms
• A binary variable may appear either in its normal form (x)
or in its complement form (x’). Now either two binary
variables x and y combined with an AND operation. Since
each variable may appear in either form, there are four
possible combinations:
x’y’, x’y, xy’ and xy
• Each of these four AND terms is called a ‘minterm’.
• In a similar fashion, when two binary variables x and y
combined with an OR operation, there are four possible
combinations:
x’+ y’, x’+ y, x+ y’ and x+ y
• Each of these four OR terms is called a ‘maxterm’.
 Sum of Minterm: (Sum of Products)
The logical sum of two or more logical product
terms is called sum of products
 Sum of Maxterm: (Product of Sums)
A product of sums expression is a logical product
of two or more logical sum terms. It is basically an
AND operation of OR operated variables such as,
Canonical Sum of product expression:

• If each term in SOP form contains all the

literals then the SOP is known as standard (or)
canonical SOP form. Each individual term in
standard SOP form is called minterm
canonical form.

• F (A, B, C) = AB’C+ ABC+ ABC’

 Steps to convert general SOP to standard
SOP form:
1. Find the missing literals in each product term if
any.
2. AND each product term having missing literals by
OR ing the literal and its complement.
3. Expand the term by applying distributive law and
reorder the literals in the product term.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated
product terms if any
 Obtain the canonical SOP form of the
function:

1. Y(A, B) = A+ B

2.Y (A, B, C) = A+ ABC

3.Y (A, B, C) = A+ BC

4.Y (A, B, C) = AC+ AB+ BC

5.Y (A, B, C, D) = AB+ ACD

 Canonical Product of sum expression
• If each term in POS form contains all literals then
the POS is known as standard (or) Canonical POS
form. Each individual term in standard POS form
is called Maxterm canonical form.
• F (A, B, C) = (A+ B+ C). (A+ B’+ C). (A+ B+ C’)
• F (x, y, z) = (x+ y’+ z’). (x’+ y+ z). (x+ y+ z)
 Steps to convert general POS to standard
POS form:
1. Find the missing literals in each sum term if
any.
2. OR each sum term having missing literals by
ANDing the literal and its complement.
3. Expand the term by applying distributive law
and reorder the literals in the sum term.
4. Reduce the expression by omitting repeated
sum terms if any.
 Obtain the canonical POS expression of the
functions:
1. Y= A+ B’C
2.Y= (A+B) (B+C) (A+C)
3.Y= A. (B+ C+ A)
4. Y= (A+B’) (B+C) (A+C’)
5. Y= xy+ x’z
 KARNAUGH MAP MINIMIZATION
• The simplification of the functions using Boolean
laws and theorems becomes complex with the
increase in the number of variables and terms.
• A K-map is a diagram made up of squares, with
each square representing one minterm of the
function that is to be minimized.
• For n variables on a Karnaugh map there are 2n
numbers of squares. Each square or cell
represents one of the minterms. It can be drawn
directly from either minterm (sum-of-products) or
maxterm (product-of-sums) Boolean expressions.
Two- Variable, Three Variable and Four
Variable Maps
Grouping cells for Simplification
• The grouping is nothing but combining terms
in adjacent cells. The simplification is
achieved by grouping adjacent 1’s or 0’s in
groups of 2i, where i = 1, 2, …, n and n is the
number of variables
 Simplification of Sum of Products
Expressions: (Minimal Sums)
1. Plot the K-map and place 1’s in those cells corresponding to the
1’s in the sum of product expression. Place 0’s in the other cells.
2. Check the K-map for adjacent 1’s and encircle those 1’s which are
not adjacent to any other 1’s. These are called isolated 1’s.
3. Check for those 1’s which are adjacent to only one other 1 and
encircle such pairs.
4. Check for quads and octets of adjacent 1’s even if it contains some
1’s that have already been encircled. While doing this make sure
that there are minimum number of groups.
5. Combine any pairs necessary to include any 1’s that have not yet
been grouped.
6. Form the simplified expression by summing product terms of all
the groups.
• F(x, y, z) = Σm (3, 4, 6, 7).
• F = A’C + A’B + AB’C + BC
• F(x, y, z) = Σm (0, 2, 4, 5, 6).
• AB’C + A’B’C + A’BC + AB’C’ + A’B’C’
• Y = A’BC’D’ + A’BC’D + ABC’D’ + ABC’D + AB’C’D + A’B’CD’
• F (w, x, y, z) = Σ m(0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14)
• F= A’B’C’+ B’CD’+ A’BCD’+ AB’C’
• Y= ABCD+ AB’C’D’+ AB’C+ AB
• Y (A, B, C, D)= Σ m (7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
• Y= A’B’C’D+ A’BC’D+ A’BCD+ A’BCD’+ ABC’D+ ABCD+
AB’CD
• Y= Σ m (1, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15)
• Y= A’B’CD’+ ABCD’+ AB’CD’+ AB’CD+ AB’C’D’+ ABC’D’+
A’B’CD+ A’B’C’D’
• F (A, B, C, D) = Σ m (0, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10)
 Simplification of Sum of Products
Expressions: (Minimal Sums)
• Y= (A+ B+ C’) (A+ B’+ C’) (A’+ B’+ C’)
(A’+ B+ C) (A+ B+ C)
• Y= (A’+ B’+ C+ D) (A’+ B’+ C’+ D) (A’+
B’+ C’+ D’) (A’+ B+ C+ D) (A+ B’+ C’+ D)
• F(A, B, C, D)= ΠM (0, 2, 3, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14,
15)
• F(A, B, C, D)= Σm (0, 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10)
= ΠM (3, 4, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
 Don’t care Conditions:
• A don’t care minterm is a combination of
variables whose logical value is not specified.
When choosing adjacent squares to simplify the
function in a map, the don’t care minterms may
be assumed to be either 0 or 1. When
simplifying the function, we can choose to
include each don’t care minterm with either the
1’s or the 0’s, depending on which combination
gives the simplest expression.
• F (x, y, z) = Σm (0, 1, 2, 4, 5)+ Σd (3, 6, 7)
• F (w, x, y, z) = Σm (1, 3, 7, 11, 15)+ Σd (0, 2, 5)
• F (w, x, y, z) = Σm (0, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12)+ Σd (2, 5,
13)
• F (w, x, y, z) = Σm (0, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10)+ Σd (2, 11)
• F( A, B, C, D) = Σm (0, 6, 8, 13, 14)+ Σd (2, 4,
10)
 Five- Variable Maps
• A 5- variable K- map requires 25= 32 cells, but adjacent cells
are difficult to identify on a single 32-cell map. Therefore,
two 16 cell K-maps are used.

• If the variables are A, B, C, D and E, two identical 16- cell

maps containing B, C, D and E can be constructed. One map
is used for A and other for A’.

• In order to identify the adjacent grouping in the 5- variable

map, we must imagine the two maps superimposed on one
another ie., every cell in one map is adjacent to the
corresponding cell in the other map, because only one
variable changes between such corresponding cells.
• Thus, every row on one map is adjacent to the
corresponding row (the one occupying the same
position) on the other map, as are corresponding
columns.
• Also, the rightmost and leftmost columns within
each 16- cell map are adjacent, just as they are in
any 16- cell map, as are the top and bottom rows.

• However, the rightmost column of the map is not

adjacent to the leftmost column of the other map.
• Simplify the Boolean function
• F (A, B, C, D, E) = Σm (0, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17,
21, 25, 27, 29, 31)
• F (A, B, C, D, E) = Σm (0, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 20,
24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31)
• F (A, B, C, D, E) = Σm ( 1, 4, 8, 10, 11, 20, 22, 24,
25, 26) +Σd (0, 12, 16, 17)
• F (A, B, C, D, E) = Σm (0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 12, 28, 29,
31)
• F (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) = Σm (2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14,
15, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31 )
 LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are electronic circuits that can be
used to implement the most elementary logic
expressions, also known as Boolean
expressions. The logic gate is the most basic
building block of combinational logic
 UNIVERSAL GATES
• The NAND and NOR gates are known as universal
gates, since any logic function can be implemented
using NAND or NOR gates.
 Conversion of AND/OR/NOT to NAND/NOR

1. Draw AND/OR logic.

2. If NAND hardware has been chosen, add bubbles on the
output of each AND gate and bubbles on input side to all
OR gates. If NOR hardware has been chosen, add bubbles
on the output of each OR gate and bubbles on input side to
all AND gates.
3. Add or subtract an inverter on each line that received a bubble
in step 2.
4. Replace bubbled OR by NAND and bubbled AND by NOR.
5. Eliminate double inversions.
Implement Boolean expression using NAND gates:
Using Nor gate
Procedure for Tabulation method