Site Exploration

and
Characterization

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 Definition
The process of determining the layers of natural
soil deposits that will underlie a proposed
structure and their physical properties is
generally referred to as site investigation.

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 EXPLORATION
• PROGRAM
The purpose of the exploration program is to
determine, within practical limits,
– the stratification and
– engineering properties of the soils

• The principal properties of interest will be the

– strength,
– deformation, and
– hydraulic characteristics.

• The program should be planned so that the maximum

amount of information can be obtained at minimum cost.

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The purpose of a soil investigation
program
1. Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable for
a given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation problems (for
example, expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and
so on).
5. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like
retaining walls, sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Establishment of construction methods for changing
subsoil conditions.

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 Steps of subsurface exploration
program
Preliminary site investigation

• In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is opened

to establish in a general manner
– the stratification,
– types of soil to be expected, and possibly
– the location of the groundwater table.

• One or more borings should be taken to rock, or

competent strata, if the initial borings indicate the upper
soil is loose or highly compressible.

• This amount of exploration is usually the extent of the

site investigation for small structures.
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Assembly of all available information about the proposed
structure:

• dimensions,
• column spacing,
• type and use of the structure,
• basement requirements, and
• any special architectural considerations of the
proposed building.

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 Preliminary Investigation
Stage
• During the conceptual planning of a project,
a preliminary geotechnical investigation is to
be carried out.
• Attend periodic meetings with the Design
Manager and the Consultant team to
obtain the instructions regarding project
requirements.
• In the preliminary investigation stage, provide
the following:

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 (1) Air Photo
Interpretation
• Where air photographs are available, map
the site and surrounding area terrain to
indicate some or all of the following:
• general drainage patterns
• general slopes and ranges or gradient
• bedrock outcrops, where present
• general surficial soil types
• poorly drained or bog areas (peat or muskeg)
• erosion features
• old or potential slope failure areas.

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 (2) Literature
Search
• Review the geology of the area from
known data, either to supplement the
• air photo interpretation, or to replace it
where air photos are not available.
• Search all available physiographical data
and previous site investigation
• data, along with any available well
water records.

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 (3) Site
Reconnaissance
Following air photo interpretation and/or literature
search, carry out a preliminary site reconnaissance
to physically examine

• land forms,
• drainage,
• erosion features, etc.

In addition, hand auger holes or rod soundings may

be put down, or shallow test pits excavated to
confirm the
general surficial soil, bedrock and groundwater
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conditions.
• This may be in the form of a field trip to the site
which can reveal information on the type and
behavior of adjacent structures such as
– cracks,
– noticeable sags, and possibly
– sticking doors and windows.

•The type of local existing structures may influence,

to a considerable extent, the
•exploration program and
•The best foundation type for the proposed
adjacent structure.

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 (3) Preliminary Investigation
Report
• Present the findings of the work in
the preliminary investigation report.
• Present the data in a form that enables the
client to assess the economic effect which
the soil, bedrock and groundwater may have
on the viability of the project.

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 Detailed Geotechnical
Investigation
Upon completion of the preliminary investigation, meet with
the Design Manager and the Consultant team to review
other relevant planning concept design information. The
detailed geotechnical investigation shall include:

1. Field Exploration
2. Field Sampling
3. Field Testing
4. Groundwater Records
5. Laboratory testing of samples
6. Classification tests
7. Strength tests

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Where the preliminary site investigation has
established the feasibility of the project, a
more detailed exploration program is
undertaken.

The preliminary borings and data are used as

a basis for locating additional borings,
which should be confirmatory in nature,
and determining the additional samples
required. 14
 Field
• Exploration
The pattern of borehole drilling and/or test pit excavation should
be agreed between the geotechnical consultant and the
Consultant's design engineer.

• The nature of the project to be designed and the known

subsurface conditions of the area usually dictate the
–location,
–spacing and
–depth of the test holes.

• Carry out the drilling of boreholes by an experienced drill

crew using the
type of equipment best suited for the terrain and anticipated
soil conditions.

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 Field
Sampling
•The frequency and type of sampling may be varied by the requirements of
the project, but should be under the control of the geotechnical consultant.

• Normally, standard sampling intervals below the 4.5 m or 6 m depth

if conditions warrant such increase.

• Types of samples normally used include

•soils carried out at 0.75 m intervals initially, with
a spacing often increased to 1.5 m spoons and
– thin wall Shelby tubes.
•Other types of samplers which may be required in certain types of soil are
piston and Oesterberg samplers and foil samplers.

•In test pit excavations, representative bulk samples may be recovered from
the different stratigraphy units as necessary.

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 Field
Testing
Types of tests normally done include
• insitu vane,
• standard penetration,
• dynamic cone penetration,
• pressure meter
• Other tests depending on soil conditions
may include
– static cone penetrometer,
– flat dilatometer,
– plate load tests, etc.

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 Groundwater
• FluctuationsRecords
in the elevation of the groundwater occur over a
period of time.
• The existing groundwater level should be monitored by
piezometers or
• other methods as a routine part of any investigation.
• The installation of such equipment should be in accordance
with recognized standards.
• Such installations usually require additional visits to the site to
make field
• observations until conditions have reached equilibrium.
• Record all observations of the encountering of seepage water or
initial water percolation into test pits.
• Record the rate of inflow and rise of water levels at the time of the
initial observations in order to assess correctly the apparent
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influence which the water condition may have on the design project
on construction
 Laboratory Testing of
Samples
• Test representative samples from the
detailed site investigation in the laboratory
for the determination of soil properties
essential to the preparation of the
geotechnical report.
• Determine natural moisture content of
samples at the time of the
investigation.
• Base the report and recommendations on
the laboratory results obtained. 19
 Classification
Tests
• Classification testing of samples is
frequently carried out to identify soil type.
• Such classification tests include
– grain size analysis,
– Atterberg limits,
– moisture content determinations
• and is to be carried out in accordance with
recognized practice such as recommended
by ASTM.

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 (Strength Tests)
Engineering
Behaviour
• Strength and consolidation tests should be
carried out on undisturbed samples if
conditions warrant such testing.

• Such tests may be carried out in a variety of

ways, depending upon the parameters required
and the soil type being examined, but all such
tests are to be carried out in accordance with
recognized practice, e. g. ASTM.
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 Depth of
Boring
• The approximate required minimum depth
of the borings should be predetermined.
• The estimated depths can be changed
during the drilling operation, depending on
the subsoil encountered.
• To determine the approximate
minimum depth of boring, engineers
may use the following rule:

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 Depth of
1. Determine the Boring
net increase of stress, under a
foundation with depth as shown in the Figure on the
next slide.

2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, ',

with depth.

3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the stress increase 

is equal to (1/10) q (q = estimated net stress on the
foundation).

4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which /' = 0.05.

5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two

depths, D1 and D2, just determined is the approximate
minimum depth of boring required.

Table shows the minimum depths of borings for buildings based 23

on the preceding rule.
 Depth of
Boring

Determination of the minimum depth of boring

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Depth of
Boring

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 Depth of
Boring
For hospitals and office buildings, the following
rule could be use to determine boring depth

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 Depth of
• When
Boring
deep excavations are anticipated, the
depth of boring should be at, least 1.5 times the
depth of excavation.

• Sometimes subsoil conditions are such that the

foundation load may have to be transmitted to
the bedrock. The minimum depth of core boring
into the bedrock is about 3m.

• If the bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core

borings may have to be extended to greater
depths.
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 Spacing of
• Boring
There are no hard and fast rules for the
spacing of the boreholes.
• The following table gives some
general guidelines for borehole
spacing.
• These spacing can be increased or
decreased, depending on the subsoil
condition.
• If various soil strata are more or less uniform
and predictable, the number of boreholes
can be reduced. 28
 Spacing of
Boring
Approximate Spacing of Boreholes

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 SOIL
• BORING
The earliest method of obtaining a test hole was
to excavate a test pit using a pick and shovel.

• Because of economics, the current procedure is to use

power-excavation equipment such as a backhoe to
excavate the pit and then to use hand tools to
remove a block sample or shape the site for in situ
testing.

• This is the best method at present for obtaining

quality undisturbed samples or samples for testing at
other than vertical orientation.
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SOIL
BORING

3
1
Boring
tools
Auger boring Power drills

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Boring
tools

3
3
Boring
tools

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Borin
g
tools

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 Preparation of Boring
Logs
1. Name and address of the drilling company
2. Driller’s name
3. Job description and number
4. Number, type, and location of boring
5. Date of boring
6. Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by
visual observation of the soil brought out by auger,
split-spoon sampler, and thin-walled Shelby tube
sampler
7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing
and mud losses, and so on
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
10.In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for
each run, the actual length of coring, length of core
RQ 36
recovery, and
37
 SOIL
• Two types of soilSAMPLING
samples can be obtained during
sampling disturbed and undisturbed.
• The most important engineering properties required
for foundation design are strength, compressibility,
and permeability.
• Reasonably good estimates of these properties for cohesive
soils can be made by laboratory tests on undisturbed
samples which can be obtained with moderate difficulty.
• It is nearly impossible to obtain a truly undisturbed sample
of soil; so in general usage the term "undisturbed" means a
sample where some precautions have been taken to
minimize disturbance or remolding effects.
• In this context, the quality of an "undisturbed" sample
varies widely between soil laboratories..

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 Disturbed vs
Undisturbed
Good quality samples necessary.

AR<10%
O.D.2  I.D.2
AR  100 (%)
soil I.D. 2

area ratio

sampling tube

Thicker the wall, greater the

disturbance. 39
Disturbed vs
Undisturbed

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Rock
coring

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 GROUND WATER TABLE
LEVEL
Groundwater conditions and the potential for
groundwater seepage are fundamental factors in
virtually all geotechnical analyses and design
studies. Accordingly, the evaluation of groundwater
conditions is a basic element of almost all
geotechnical investigation programs. Groundwater
investigations are of two types as follows:
• Determination of groundwater levels and pressures.
• Measurement of the permeability of the
subsurface materials.

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 FIELD STRENGTH
TESTS
The following are the major field tests
for determining the soil strength:
1. Vane shear test (VST).
2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
3. Cone Penetration Test (CPT).
4. The Borehole Shear Test (BST).
5. The Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT).
6. The Pressure-meter Test (PMT).
7. The Plate Load Test (PLT).
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FIELD STRENGTH
TESTS

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Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)

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Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)

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Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
Corrections are normally applied to the SPT
blow count to account for differences in:
• energy imparted during the test
(60% hammer efficiency)
• the stress level at the test depth
The following equation is used to compensate
for the testing factors (Skempton, 1986):

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Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)

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Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)

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Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)

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Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)

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Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)

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Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)

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Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)

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The Plate Load Test
(PLT)

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The Plate Load Test
(PLT)

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The Plate Load Test
(PLT)

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The Plate Load Test
(PLT)
Scale Effect in Foundation Design

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 Geotechnical Design
• Reports
At the end of all subsoil exploration programs, the soil
and/or rock specimens collected from the field are
subjected to visual observation and appropriate laboratory
testing. After the
compilation of all of the required information, a soil
exploration report is prepared for the use of the design office
and for reference during future construction work. Although
the details and sequence of information in the report may
vary to some degree is depending on the structure under
consideration and the person compiling the report.

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 Subsoil Exploration
Report
1. A description of the scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has
been conducted
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby, drainage
conditions, the nature of vegetation on the site and surrounding it, and any
other features unique to the site
4. A description of the geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field exploration—that is, number of borings, depths of borings,
types of borings involved, and so on
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil
specimens and from related laboratory tests, standard penetration resistance
and cone penetration resistance, and soon
7. A description of the water-table conditions
8. Re commendations regarding the foundation, including the type of foundation
recommended, the allowable hearing pressure, and any special construction
procedure that may he needed; alternative foundation design procedures should
also be discussed in this portion of the report
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
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 Geotechnical
Report
• The Geotechnical Report should outline the
terms of reference of the investigation,
should summarize the findings of the field
investigation and the supplementary
laboratory testing and should then present
the conclusions and recommendations based
on these findings.

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 Factual
Data
The factual data comprises
• the terms of reference,
• the details of the field investigation
procedures,
• the results of the field investigation,
• the results of the field testing,
• records of groundwater observations,
• laboratory test results,
• site plan and inferred soil stratigraphy, etc.
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 Report
Recommendations
Recommendations may cover a variety of
activities, such as
• alternative founding depths with
recommended design bearing values,
• pile design considerations,
• estimates of potential settlements,
• recommended safe slopes of banks or
excavation walls,
• earth pressures for shoring design,
• dewatering requirements, soil stabilization, etc.
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 Subsoil Exploration
Report
The following graphical presentations should
he attached to the report:
1. A site location map
2. A plan view of the location of the borings with
respect to the proposed structures and those
nearby
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations

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Example Table
of Contents
for a
Geotechnical
Investigation
(Data) Report

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