Basic Cementing - Customer Presentation

Basics of Well Cementing
Cementing Process
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Cementing Terminology
Cementing is a Process which includes :

• Job identification and definition.
• Slurry design and testing.
• Blending and hauling (mainly land).
• Mixing and pumping.
• Evaluation.
A Cement Slurry is defined as :

– The fluid resulting from adding mix
water and additives to dry cement,
or cement blends.
Reasons for Cementing
• Bonds and supports casing.

• Seals lost circulation zones.
• Protects casing from corrosion due
to sub-surface brines or sour gas.
• Prevents blow-outs by forming a seal against
the formations and casing.
• Protects casing (shoe) from shock loading when
drilling ahead.
• Prevents fluid movement between zones.
Typical Cementing Equipment
Bulk Cement Silos

Lab Testing & Design
Pump Units
Casing JobTools
Monitoring Equipment
Cement Job Classification
Primary cementing
• Casing cementing
• Multistage jobs
• Liner cementing
Remedial cementing
• Plugs
• Squeezes
• Top up jobs
Types of Primary Cementing
Casing strings used to construct the well include :
• Conductor Casing.
• Surface Casing.
• Intermediate Casing(s).
• Drilling Liner(s).
• Production Casing.
• Production Liner.
Other Types of Primary Cementing :
• Tie-Back Liners.
• Top Up Jobs (often classed as Remedial).
• Multi Stage Jobs.
Primary Cementing…Types of Casing Strings
• Conductor csg PLUG DROPPING
HEAD
CEMENTING
• Surface csg TOP PLUG MANIFOLD
LANDING JOINT
• Intermediate csg (CROSS-OVER)
INTERMEDIATE
OR SURFACE
CASING
• Production csg CASING IN CASING
ANNULUS
EXTERNAL CASING
• Drilling liner PACKER (OPTIONAL)
CEMENT
• Production liner BASKET
(OPTIONAL) BOTTOM
WIPER PLUG
• Tie back liner
PREVIOUS
• Top up jobs SCRATCHERS CASING SHOE
• Inner string CASING

OPEN HOLE
CASING/OPEN
• Multi-stage jobs CENTRALIZER
HOLE ANNULUS
FLOAT
COLLAR
FLOW FLOAT SHOE
DIRECTION (GUIDE SHOE)
Main Functions of Casing Strings
Conductor Casing Functions :

•Protects rig foundation and stabilize cellar.
•Consolidates loose surface formations.
•Control circulating fluids.
Applications :
•Cemented by inner string method.
•Conventional circulation method w/plugs.
Cement Slurry :
•Cheap lead filler slurry (extended).
•“Neat” tail slurry (often accelerated).
Note :
•Hole may be washed out - cement to surface.
•Tie down casing - check csg lift pressures.
Surface casing Functions :

•Protect fresh water zones – contamination.
•Seal loose formations and thief zones.
•Support subsequent casings.
•Connects blow out preventer (BOP) and well head casing flanges.
Applications :
•Cemented by inner string method.
•Conventional circulation method w/plugs.
Cement Slurry :
•Cheap lead filler slurry (extended).
•“Neat” tail slurry (often accelerated).
Note :
•Hole may be washed out - cement to surface.
•Tie down casing - check csg lift pressures.
Intermediate Casing Functions :

•Seal off thief and fractured zones, corrosive waters.
•Prevent sloughing and hole enlargement during deeper drilling.
•Prevents stuck pipe and loss of string in key seated or sticky hole.
•Support subsequent casings.
Applications :
•Single stage (w/plugs).
•Multi stage (w/plugs).
Cement Slurry (depends on BHST) :
•Cheap filler lead ; low density generally.
•Neat tail…. both slurries may be retarded.
•Risk of lost circulation, & sulphate attack.
Production Casing Functions :

•Protects the hole.
•Isolate zones & prevent fluid migration.
•Provide well control if tubing fails.
•Protects down hole equipment.
•Allows selective production/injection.
Applications :
•Single Stage (w/Plugs).
•Multi Stage (w/Plugs).
Critical Design Issues :
•Mud removal - Washes and Spacers.
•Casing Centralization and Hole condition.
•Flow Regimes and Fluid Rheologies.
•Cement slurry :
Low fluid loss.
No free water.
Non-damaging to reservoir.
BHST.
Primary Cement Job
Circulating Mixing & Pumping Displacing Cmt in Place
Cement
Mud
Spacer
Top
Centralizers Plug
Btm
Plug
Wash Wash
Float
Collar Btm
Plug
Mud
Guide Cement
Shoe
Spacer
Liner Strings
Definition :
• Any string of Casing that runs from the TD of the
open hole to inside the previous casing, BUT NOT
BACK TO SURFACE.
• Requires that the casing string “Hangs” from near
the end of the previously cemented string.
• Intent is to reduce amount of casing used.
Exceptions to definition :
• “Scab Liners” are not run in open hole.
• Used inside another casing, because of a problem
with that (larger) casing.
• Tie Back liners run from top of conventional liner
(sometimes to surface = Tie back casing).
Liner Strings
(Open-hole) Liner Functions :

• Same as Intermediate or Production
casings, BUT :
• Casing to surface not required (Save $$$).
• Can be used to “patch over” damaged Csg.
• Remedial liner gives restricted size
options for well completion tools.
Applications :
• Run on Drill Pipe - Special plugs required.
• “Lap” section most difficult to cement.
Critical Design Issues :
• Mud removal - Washes and Spacers.
• Casing Centralization and Hole condition.
• Flow Regimes and Fluid Rheologies.
• Single (Best) Cement slurry : Low Fluid Loss.
• No Free water. “Lap” clearance. BHST.
Types of Liner Strings
PLUG DROPPING
HEAD CEMENTING
DRILL PIPE MANIFOLD
WIPER DART
•
INTERMEDIATE
Drilling liners DRILL PIPE
CASING
DRILL PIPE
CASING ANNULUS
• Production liners
STINGER PACK-OFF
•
(SEAL)
Tie-back (stub liners) LINER HANGER
LINER
•
(PACKER OPTIONAL)
INTERMEDIATE
Tie back casing ANNULUS
(OVER LAP OR LAP)
WIPER PLUG
SHEAR TYPE
• Scab liners
LINER CASING
INTERMEDIATE
CASING SHOE
OPEN HOLE
LINER/OPEN
HOLE ANNULUS
LANDING COLLAR
(FOR PLUG)
FLOAT COLLAR
FLOAT SHOE
(SET SHOE)
Typical Casing Float Equipment
Standard Non - Rotating Standard Double

Float Collar Float Collar Float Shoe Float Shoe
autofill
Typical Casing Equipment….Displacement Plugs
Bottom Plugs.
Pressure Breaks Them.
Note Colour different.
Standard Non-Rotating
Typical Top Plugs.
(Solid - Must be drilled out)
Typical Drill Pipe Wiper Dart

(With Latch down Head)
Typical Casing Equipment….Displacement Plugs
“Bow”
Centralizers
Often ran with stop collar inside
Stop Collars
Required to fix
position of
Centralizers
“Slim Hole” Centralizers

Requires 2 Stop Collars
Basic Rules for ALL Cement Jobs
• Ensure well is dead; Cure all lost circulation.

• Caliper the hole - know where wash-outs are.
• Know pore & frac pressures of all formations.
• Design centralizer schedule for best stand-off.
• Run casing slowly - minimize surge pressures.
• Break circulation every 500 feet - clean the hole
and mud system. Circulate below max ECD.
• At TD, circulate hole at maximum rate (two
circulation volumes minimum).
• Reduce mud viscosity and gels to minimum
required for well control. Use Fluid Density Hierarchy.
• Use at least two cementing plugs.
• Pump wash(s), spacer and slurries at design
Volume, density & rates. Always move pipe during
complete job (especially during displacement).
• NEVER, NEVER, NEVER Over-displace.
Cement & Additives
Key Elements
PORTLAND CEMENT
PRIMARY PURPOSE :
 PROVIDE A HYDRAULIC BOND BETWEEN

THE CASING AND FORMATION FOR ZONAL
ISOLATION
RAW MATERIALS…. NATURAL
Calcareous
– Limestone (Sed. & Met.)
– Chalk
– Shell, Coral
Argillaceous
– Clays
– Shales
– Marls
– Mudstone
– Slate
MANUFACTURING PROCESS TYPES
Dry Process
 Economical Efficiency
Wet Process
 Reproducible Quality
MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES
• Raw Material Proportioned

• Grinding
• Heated in Kiln (1500°C)
• Converted to Clinker
• Gypsum Added
• Pulverized
WET PROCESS
Vibrating Screen
s
a rticle
rs iz ed P
Ove
Water
Cement Rock
Added
Limestone
Iron Ore
Slurry
Fines
Here
Clay
Raw Material Proportioned Grinding Mill Slurry Pumps
To Kiln
Slurry is Mixed and Blended Slurry Pump Storage Basins
Portland Cement Association, 1969

DRY PROCESS To Air Separator Dust Collectors
Cement Rock
Limestone
Iron Ore
Clay
Oversized
Particles
Hot Air
Fines
Raw Material Proportioned Furnace
Grinding Mill
To Pneumatic Pump
Raw Mix
To Kiln
Dry Mixing and Ground Raw

Blending Silos
Material Storage
Portland Cement Association 1969
Raw Material
to Kiln
BURNING PROCESS
Raw Material is Kiln Burned
to Partial Fusion at 1500°C Coal, Oil or
Dust
Collector Gas Fuel
Air
Fan Dust Bin Rotating Kiln Clinker Cooler
Clinker
Clinker Gypsum Material are Stored Separately
Clinker and Gypsum are Proportioned

and Conveyed to the Final Grinding Mill

Grinding Plant Air Dust
Separator Collectors
Materials
Proportioned
To Bulk Transport, Rail

Car and Packaging Plant
Ground Cement Storage
for use in Oil Wells
PORTLAND CEMENT….. PRINCIPAL COMPOUNDS
Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF)

CEMENT CLASSIFICATION
Sulfate API ASTM
MgO SO3 C3A Blain
Rest. Class Type
O A I 6.0 % 3.0 % n.a. 1600
C III 6.0 % 4.5 % 15.0 % 2200
MSR B II 6.0 % 3.0% 8.0 % 1600
G II 6.0 % 3.0 % 8.0 % 1800
H II 6.0 % 3.0 % 8.0 % 1600
HSR B II 6.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 1600
C III 6.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 2200
G II 6.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 1800
H II 6.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 1600

Cement Chemistry
The chemistry of portland cement is very complicated. It starts

the very second that water comes into contact with the dry
cement. Research has revealed that 22 separate and identifiable
chemical reactions are occurring simultaneously while cement is
setting.
Cement also has the unfortunate quality of being different each

time you have to deal with it. Any given batch can test
differently when the tests are separated by as little as a week.
Also, each mill run of cement is different from the last, coming out
of the same manufacturing plant and being made from the same
raw materials.
Cement Chemistry…..Overview 1
ON CONTACT WITH WATER C3S AND C2S REACT TO FORM

CALCIUM SILICATE HYDRATE (C-S-H) GEL.
INITIAL SURGE OF REACTIVITY DUE TO HEAT OF HYDRATION

OF FREE LIME (CaO).
C-S-H EXTERNAL REACTIONS INHIBITED BY SEMI-PERMEABLE

GEL COAT, INTERNAL REACTIONS CONTINUE.
• THIS IS CALLED THE DORMANT OR "INDUCTION" PHASE

Hydration of Cement (C3S)
C3S
H2O
Ca2+
2 OH-
MIXWATER
C3S C-S-H - Gel

(Calcium Silicate Hydrate)
H2O
Ca 2+
2 OH -
MIXWATER
Cement Chemistry…..Overview 2
OSMOTIC PRESSURE WITHIN C-S-H BUILDS DUE TO

INTERNAL REACTIONS.
THIS CAUSES THE C-S-H MEMBRANE TO RUPTURE.

MATERIALS RELEASED INCLUDE Ca(OH)2.
TUBULAR GROWTHS OF C-S-H (FIBRILS) FORM A NETWORK

OF INTERLOCKING WITH OTHER HYDRATION PRODUCTS.
C3S C-S-H - Gel

(Calcium Silicate Hydrate)
H2O
Ca 2+
2 OH -
MIXWATER
Cement Chemistry Overview……3
C3A ENTERS INTO THE REACTION WITH GYPSUM TO FORM

ETTRINGITE (CALCIUM-SULPHO-ALUMINATE-HYDRATE).
ETTRINGITE COATS C3A SURFACE REDUCING REACTION

UNTIL ALL GYPSUM PRESENT IS CONSUMED.
ETTRINGITE THEN CONVERTS TO CALCIUM ALUMINATE

HYDRATES
Heat Flow During the Hydration of Cement
API Cements
There are 9 different classes of API cement.

Only 5 of these are in use today.
The classes in used today around the world are

– A, B, C, G & H.
In almost all offshore drilling areas outside of the USA Class G is

the cement of choice.
In many areas it is common to see Class A and C used on surface

and conductor cement jobs … as well as DEEP WATER.
API Cements Continued 1
Class A
– Mainly used for shallow surface & conductor casing strings.
– Similar to ASTME 150, Type 1 Construction Cement
Class B, very rarely used
Class C
– Mainly used for shallow surface & conductor casing strings.
– Has a higher sulfate resistance than Class A
Class H
– All purpose, Similar to Class G but with a coarser grind
– Commonly used in the USA
API Cements Continued 2
Class G
– Optimum Density 15.86 ppg
– Mix Water Req’mt, 44% BWOC 4.96 gal/sk
– Yield 1.14 cf/sk
Other
– All purpose
– Intended for use at all depths in the well with additives
– Responds well to the addition of additives to control slurry properties
– Most widely used cement class in the world
Objectives of Primary Cementing
Primary cementing is the process of placing cement in the annulus between the casing and the formations exposed to the well bore.
Since its inception in 1903, the objective of primary cementing has always been to provide zonal isolation in the well bore of oil, gas and water wells. To achieve this objective a hydraulic seal must be obtained between the casing and the cement and the cement and the
formation, while at the same time
preventing fluid channels in the
cement itself.
Primary cementing is the most important operation performed on a producing well.

Without complete zonal isolation in the well bore, the well may never reach its full producing potential. Implications of this are lost reserves, higher operating costs, remedial work, and lower producing rates.
Technologically cementing has gone under many changes over the years. The 1st major change was the type of cement used. As wells got deeper & hotter different kinds of cement were developed. The advent of this was the API Standardization Committee in 1937. In the beginning additives were used to alter the cement slurry & result was hard cement despite very little knowledge regarding the chemistry of cement.
Continued
- In the 50’s fluid loss was identified as a key property of cement.

- In the 60’s a reduction in Waiting on Cement (WOC) time resulted in tremendous savings in rig costs.
- In the early days WOC time averaged 10 days.
- As late as 1961 the industry average in the USA was still 24 hours.
- Industry average now for WOC is 8 - 12 hours
- In some cases, no WOC!.
Primary Cementing Advancements
- Dens ity al tering addi ti ves ,

- Tes ti ng of oil well c ements ,
- Gas flow after cementi ng (late 70’s and into the 80’s ),
- J ob ex ec uti on and monitori ng (80’s ),
- Equipment improv ements (80’s ).
- In the 90’s we hav e s een refi nem ents made to the c hanges that oc c urred i n the last 20 y ears .
- Liqui d additiv es & M ulti Purpos e Addi ti v es has
helped i mprov e c ementing tec hnology.
- An increas ed borrowi ng & unders tandi ng of Cement from a s i ster i ndus try … Cons truction Indus try.
Why we use Cement additives
• Each cement additive is included in a slurry to change

one property of that slurry. This is the primary effect of
that additive.
• However, almost every additive has other effects on

the slurry. These additional effects on the slurry can
be called secondary or side effects. Sometimes they
are helpful and sometimes they are unhelpful.
Effects of Additives
Another phenomenon which can and does further complicate the picture
is that of synergistic effects.
A synergistic effect is a change in the slurry which results when two

additives are in a slurry together, but which will not result from either
additive being in the slurry by itself.
E.G. 1 + 1 = = 2.5 or 1 + 1 = =1.2
Other synergisms also occur with two or more additives which may or
may not be detrimental to the slurry.
Additives
What is a cement additive?
A cement additive is a a material, other than cement or water,

which is added after manufacture to modify the properties of the
cement slurry or set cement.
What Properties of a cement slurry can be controlled by additives?
Thickening time, Density, Yield, Fluid Loss Control, Loss

Circulation resistance, Rheology or flow properties, Gas Migration
.
Additives
What properties of a set cement can be controlled by

additives?
• Compressive Strength, Strength Retrogression,

Expansion, Bonding
Categories of Additives
Accelerators
Extenders
Foam Preventers
Lost Circulation Material (LCM)
Weighting Materials
Strength Retrogression Materials
Retarders
Dispersants
Fluid Loss Control Agents
Gas Flow Control Agents
Accelerators
FUNCTION
– TO REDUCE WOC TIME BY IMPROVING THE EARLY
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT SYSTEMS
DESIRABLE ATTRIBUTES
– CONSISTENT RESPONSE WITH ALL CEMENTS
– NO INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER ADDITIVES
– LOW COST
– LOW TOXICITY
Accelerators
PRINCIPAL GENERIC TYPES
– INORGANIC HALIDES
CaCl2, NaCl, NH4Cl, KCl, NaI, NaBr
Extenders
Extenders accomplish one or more of the following :

Reduce slurry density
Increase slurry yield
Decrease slurry cost
Common types of extenders :
Bentonite Gel
Diatomacious Earth
Fly Ash,
Glass or ceramic Microspheres
Sodium Silicate and Metasilicate
Foam Preventers
Primary effect is to release entrained air from a slurry

to allow smooth pumping operations
Side effects -helps to disperse additives in the mix water
Controlling foam in a slurry is important for three

reasons
– makes for improved density control
– maintains high mixing energies by preventing pump cavitation
– improves mixability of the slurry
Lost Circulation Materials
Flakes - Cello Flake (cellophane flakes) & Mica
Granules - Gilsonite (low grade coal), Nut Plug (ground

walnuts), Perfect Seal (ground up bricks), Rice Husks
Fibers - Flex Seal (shredded rubber), Max Seal (shredded

rubber 1/4” size), Lubra Seal (glass fibers)
Blend of fibers, flakes, and granules - Kwik Seal

Weighting Agents
Hematite - 5.02 SG (cement 3.2 SG)
Primary Effect is to increase slurry densities up to 22 ppg

Side effects, it requires additional mixing water, tends to settle in a
slurry, can be hard to mix & must be pre-blended in the slurry
W-10 or Micromax - 4.8 SG
Primary effect is to increase slurry densities 22 ppg

No side effects as it can be added to the mix water, does not settle
easily as it has a average particle size of 3 microns.
Contributes to a net reduction in cement permeability thus helping to
reduce gas migration
Strength Retrogression
Strength Retrogression is a term used to describe the break

down of cement’s compressive strength when the cement is
exposed to excessive temperatures.
At bottom hole static or producing temperature (geothermal or hot

wells) greater than 230 F, cement will, over a period of time, lose
its compressive strength, become permeable, and generally not
be able to support the casing or provide isolation.
Strength retrogression is prevented by adding additional silica to

the cement in sufficient quantity (35 -100% BWOC)
Strength Retrogression Materials
–Silica Flour
–Coarse Silica
–Silica Sand
Strength Retrogression Examples
Light Weight Strength @ 340 F
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
Strength in PSI
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
0 5 10 15 20
Time in Days
14 ppg 13.5 ppg 13 ppg 12.6 ppg 13.34 ppg 13.34 ppg
Retarders
FUNCTION
– TO GIVE CONTROLLABLE INCREASES IN THICKENING
TIME BY INTERFERING WITH THE KINETICS OF CEMENT
HYDRATION
– LITTLE EFFECT ON C/S DEVELOPMENT
– LINEAR RESPONSE v/s CONCENTRATION
– LOW TOXICITY
Retarders
PRINCIPAL GENERIC TYPES :
– LIGNINS,
– MODIFIED LIGNINS AND BLENDS
– SUGARS/ORGANIC ACIDS,
– CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES
– INORGANICS, NaCl, ZnO, KF

– RETARDER ENHANCERS, BORATES, DISPERSANTS
Dispersants
FUNCTION
– TO REDUCE CRITICAL PUMP RATES
– TO MINIMIZE FRICTION PRESSURES
– TO IMPROVE SURFACE MIXABILITY
– TO OFFSET GELATION
– TO IMPROVE FLUID LOSS CONTROL
– TO ENHANCE RETARDER ACTIVITY
– MINIMAL FREE WATER SEPARATION
– LOW RETARDER ACTIVITY WHEN USED ALONE
– LOW TOXICITY
Dispersants
– SYNTHETIC SULPHONATED POLYMERS

– MELAMINE SULPHONATES
– SUGARS/ORGANIC ACIDS
– LIGNINS
– NaCL, SAPP
Fluid Loss Additives
When a cement slurry is placed across a permeable formation

under pressure a filtration process occurs. The aqueous phase
of the slurry escapes into the formation leaving the cement
particles behind. Such a process is commonly known as fluid
loss.
If fluid loss is not controlled, several serious consequences may

result which can lead to job failure. As the fluid volume phase of
the slurry decreases, the slurry density increases. As a result,
the performance of the slurry diverges from the original design.
API fluid loss rate of a neat cement slurry normally

exceeds 1500 ml/30min. A fluid loss rate less than 50
ml/30min is often required to maintain adequate slurry
performance in a production zone.
Various types of fluid loss additives exist. Some of these

are particulate materials, water soluble polymers,
cellulose derivatives, synthetic polymers.
FUNCTION
– TO MAINTAIN A CONSTANT SOLID:LIQUID RATIO IN CEMENT
SLURRIES DURING PLACEMENT THROUGH TO SET.
THIS ENSURES CONSISTENT RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES,
THICKENING TIME AND LOWERS THE RISK OF WELLBORE
MEDIA INVASION
– LITTLE EFFECT ON OTHER SLURRY PROPERTIES
– LINEAR RESPONSE v/s CONCENTRATION
– LOW TOXICITY
– CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES
– SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
– LATICES, LATEX
– MINERALS + PARTICULATES, MICROSILICA
– GASES
AIR, NITROGEN
MECHANISMS OF ACTION:
• VISCOSIFICATION
ADDITIVE VISCOSIFIES INTERSTITIAL WATER, THEREBY SLOWING
ITS RATE OF EFFLUX THROUGH THE CAKE.
• WALL BUILDING/PORE PLUGGING

ADDITIVE BUILDS A MAT OR WALL AS IT IS FILTERED OUT BY THE
CEMENT GRAINS AND THIS PLUGS THE FILTER CAKE PORES
• ADSORPTION
ADDITIVE ADSORBS ON CEMENT GRAIN SURFACE BUT INTERACTS
WHEN CONCENTRATED AT CAKE LEVEL AND RESTRICTS WATER
MOBILITY.
• MULTIPHASE PHENOMENA
FILTRATION ACROSS THE CAKE IS REDUCED BY THE PRESENCE OF
MORE THAN ONE PHASE.
Fluid Loss Additives….Mechanism
WALL BUILDING AND VISCOSIFICATION
PORE PLUGGING OF MIXWATER
ADSORPTION AND
RESTRICTION OF WATER
MOBILITY
SOLIDS PLUG
PORES AND BUILD MAT
MIXWATER
ADSORPTION, PORE FILLING, WALL BUILDING

Free Water Channels
Free water Measured

Channel Free Water
Cement
Slurry
45°
Free Water Control Additives
UNDER DOWNHOLE CONDITIONS IT IS IMPORTANT TO CONTROL:

• FREE WATER.
• SLURRY STABILITY.
PROBLEMS:
• ZONAL ISOLATION.
• COLLAPSED CASING, PLASTIC SALTS, GEOTHERMAL WELLS, etc
APPLICATIONS:
• HORIZONTAL, DEVIATED AND SLIM-HOLE ENVIRONMENTS.
• PLASTIC SALTS, GEOTHERMAL WELLS etc
ACTION:
• IMPART STRENGTH TO GEL STRUCTURE OF CEMENT.
Bonding Additives - Gas Migration Control
 Primary Purpose
– To prevent the intrusion of wellbore fluid during the
hydration of the cement slurry
 Secondary Purposes
– Increase Bonding
– Minimize Shrinkage
– Increase Slurry Stability
– Minimize Free Fluid
Fundamentals of Cement Placement
Fundamentals of Cement Placement
&
New Technology
74 © 2010 Baker Hughes Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.

PRIMARY CEMENTING SUCCESS
OBTAINING A GOOD PRIMARY CEMENT JOB IS

DEPENDANT ON ACHIEVING TWO FUNDAMENTAL
OBJECTIVES

FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES
• REMOVAL OF DRILLING FLUID & PREPARATION OF

THE WELLBORE FOR CEMENT
• REPLACEMENT OF DRILLING FLUID WITH A

CEMENTING SYSTEM DESIGNED TO ACHIEVE THE
PRIMARY OBJECTIVES

DRILLING-FLUID DISPLACEMENT & WELLBORE PREPARATION
KEY ISSUES :
• SIMULATION SOFWARE
• BOREHOLE AND MUD CONDITIONING
• CALIPERS
• CENTRALISATION
• FLOW REGIME
• PIPE MOVEMENT
• SPACER FLUIDS

SIMULATION SOFTWARE
STATE OF THE ART SOFTWARE :
USED TO OPTIMIZE SLURRY

PLACEMENT
DETERMINES ECD, CASING STANDOFF,

MUD REMOVAL EFFICIENCY, THERMAL
& WELLBORE STRESS MODELING, ETC

SIMULATION SOFTWARE
13 3/8” Casing cement job
simulation

SIMULATION SOFTWARE

BOREHOLE AND MUD CONDITIONING
KEY ISSUES :
• MINIMISE DRILLING MUD VISCOSITY

• ELIMINATE PROGRESSIVE GELS
• SUFFICIENT PRE-JOB CIRCULATION - 2 X BOTTOMS
UP AT MAXIMUM ANTICIPATED CEMENTING RATE
• ENSURE MUD FLOW IN ENTIRE ANNULUS

CALIPER LOGS
ACCURATE HOLE VOLUME IS ESSENTIAL TO :

Wellbo
• CALCULATE ANNULAR FILL re
• DETERMINE HYDROSTATICS
• CALCULATE “U-TUBING” EFFECT
Calip
• CALCULATE FLOW REGIME
er
• DETERMINE CIRCULATING EFFICIENCY
Tool
USE MULTI-ARM CALIPER AS MOST WELLBORES

EXHIBIT NON UNIFORM PROFILES

FLUID CALIPERS
• USED TO DETERMINE THE VOLUME OF MUD THAT IS

MOVING IN THE WELLBORE
DURING CIRCULATION PRIOR TO CEMENTING THE MUD GELS

MUST BE BROKEN DOWN SO THAT FLUID IS FLOWING IN THE
ENTIRE ANNULUS
Formati
on
Casin
g
Mobile Mud
Immobile Mud
83 X
© 2010 Baker Hughes Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. >X
FLUID CALIPERS
CALCULATE VOLUME FROM RATE AND TIME
• CIRCULATE AT
CEMENTING RATE
• DROP MARKER
• MONITOR RETURNS &
CALCULATE
EFFICIENCY
• TARGET 95%
• IF NECESSARY
INCREASE RATE AND
RECALCULATE
X EFFICIENCY >X
EFFECTS OF ECCENTRIC ANNULI ON MUD REMOVAL
ECCENTRIC ANNULI CAN EXIST

BETWEEN CASING & WELLBORE
IN BOTH STRAIGHT HOLE AND
DEVIATED WELLBORES :
• NON CENTRALISED PIPE WILL

LAY AGAINST THE WELLBORE
IN STRAIGHT HOLES

GENERAL PROBLEMS :
• DRAG FORCES

GREATEST DRAG FORCES ON NARROW SIDE
• PRESSURE DROP

PRESSURE DROP LOWEST ON WIDE SIDE
• FLOW VELOCITIES

FLUID VELOCITY GREATER ON WIDE SIDE
• FLUID INTERFACES

INTERFACE HIGHER IN ANNULUS ON THE WIDE SIDE

GENERAL SOLUTION :
• PUMP AT HIGHER PUMP RATES (CREATE TURBULENCE IF

POSSIBLE)
• ACHIEVE LARGE ENOUGH PRESSURE DROP IN WIDE SIDE,
WHICH IS SUFFICIENT TO OVERCOME DRAG FORCES IN
NARROW SIDE
• FLOW VELOCITIES WILL TEND TO EQUALISE AS WILL THE FLUID INTERFACE

RELATIVE VARIATION OF FLOW RATE RATIO VS ECCENTRICITY
& RATE
X X >X BPM
RELATIVE VARIATION OF FLOW RATE RATIO VS ECCENTRICITY
18 % Stand-off = W x 100
R - R H C
16
14
RH
Flow Rate Ratio
12
+
10 + RC
6 W
4
2
0 20 40 60 80 100
API % Stand-off
PIPE CENTRALISATION
AIM FOR 80% OR GREATER STANDOFF

API RECOMMENDED MINIMUM IS
67%
USE SOLID OR BOW OR

A COMBINATION OF
CENTRALIZERS -
WHICHEVER SUIT HOLE
CONDITIONS NO RUNNING FORCES
WHENEVER POSSIBLE DESIGN
FOR PIPE MOVEMENT :
• A MAJOR CONTRIBUTING
FORCE FOR EFFECTIVE
MUD REMOVAL
PIPE MOVEMENT
• PIPE MOVEMENT SHOULD BE AN INTEGRAL PART OF ALL

CRITICAL CEMENT JOBS
• THE BENEFICIAL EFFECT OF PIPE MOVEMENT SHOULD

NEVER BE UNDER-ESTIMATED, PIPE MOVEMENT IS A MAJOR
DRIVING FORCE FOR EFFECTIVE MUD REMOVAL

DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
• FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFICIENCY OF FLUID

DISPLACEMENT

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF EACH FLUID

HOLE GEOMETRY

WASHOUTS

FLOW RATE

FLUID COMPATIBILITY

FLUID DENSITY

DISPLACEMENT MECHANICS
EFFICIENT MUD REMOVAL CAN BE ACHIEVED IN ECCENTRIC

ANNULI BY FLUIDS IN EITHER:
EFFECTIVE
TURBULENT
LAMINAR
FLOW
FLOW

Turbulent Flow SPACERS
Displacement Criteria Weighted fluids used
Preflushes in to maintain hydrostatic
turbulence across the pressure for well
entire annular cross- Cancontrol
be used in
Minimum 10area
sectional minute turbulent or effective
contact time with any laminar flow aids
Buoyancy effect
zone of interest
mud removal

Effective Laminar WASHES
Flow
Turbulence at very low
Displacement Criteria
Positive density
Promotesrates
“slump and
hierarchy
Positive frictional
dilute”
pressure hierarchy
Minimum pressure
gradient
Minimum differential
velocity at fluid
interfaces

Well Data
Fluids
Pressure
Profile
Centralization
Pumping
Rates
Run / Review
Prepare
Report
DISPLACEMENT MECHANICS
Effective Laminar
Flow
Displacement Criteria
Density of the displacing fluid should be higher
Positive density than fluid being displaced
hierarchy
Friction pressure of the displacing fluid should
Positive drag forces be higher than the fluid being displaced
hierarchy
Force required to overcome mud yield
Minimum pressure stress & move fluid in the narrow side of the
gradient annulus
Minimum differential Minimise differential velocity

velocity at fluid around the annulus at fluid
interfaces to establish a relatively
interfaces flat interface
LAMINAR FLOW CEMENTING
• FOR EFFECTIVE MUD

REMOVAL THE FOLLOWING
CRITERIA MUST BE MET:

MUD MUST BE IN MOTION ON
NARROW SIDE
OF ANNULUS.

VELOCITY DIFFERENTIAL MUST
BE
MINIMISED.

• EFFECTIVE LAMINAR FLOW DISPLACEMENT IS

ALSO DEPENDENT UPON:

DENSITY DIFFERENTIAL

DRAG FORCES HIERARCHY

MINIMUM PRESSURE GRADIENT

VELOCITY PROFILE

• DENSITY DIFFERENTIAL

DENSITY OF DISPLACING FLUID SHOULD BE HIGHER
THAN FLUID BEING DISPLACED

THIS WILL "FLOAT OUT" THE LIGHTER DENSITY
FLUID

• DRAG FORCES HIERARCHY

FRICTION PRESSURE OF THE DISPLACING FLUID
SHOULD BE HIGHER THAN THE FLUID BEING
DISPLACED TO PREVENT BY-PASSING

• MINIMUM PRESSURE GRADIENT

IS THE FORCE REQUIRED TO MOVE FLUID IN
NARROW SIDE OF ANNULUS

MUD WILL NOT FLOW ON NARROW SIDE
UNLESS SHEAR STRESS AT THE WALL
EXCEEDS THE MUD YIELD STRESS

DURING MUD CONDITIONING AND CEMENTING,
THE MINIMUM CIRCULATION RATE TO ACHIEVE
THIS MUST BE USED

• VELOCITY PROFILE

REQUIRE A FLAT INTERFACE BETWEEN FLUIDS

SUM OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCES AND FRICTIONAL
FORCES OF DISPLACING FLUID ON WIDE SIDE MUST
EXCEED THAT OF FLUID BEING DISPLACED ON NARROW
SIDE

ABOVE A CRITICAL RATE (INFLUENCED BY FRICTION
PRESSURE), BY-PASSING WILL OCCUR
• THIS ESTABLISHES THE MAXIMUM FLOW RATE

FOR PLACEMENT OF CEMENT

SUMMARY
• FRICTION PRESSURE HIERARCHY AND MINIMUM
PRESSURE GRADIENT:

ESTABLISH MIN. ANNULAR FLOW RATE
• DIFFERENTIAL VELOCITY AND FRICTION

PRESSURE CRITERIA:

ESTABLISH MAX. ANNULAR FLOW RATE
• FOR EFFECTIVE LAMINAR FLOW DISPLACEMENT:


RATE MUST BE HELD BETWEEN MAX. AND MIN.

SPACER FLUIDS
• THESE FLUIDS ARE USED TO:

SEPARATE MUD FROM CEMENT INSIDE PIPE
AND IN THE ANNULUS

INCREASE MUD DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY

CLEAN MUD FROM THE CASING AND
FORMATION

REDUCE SURFACE TENSION OF CONTACT
FLUIDS

SPACER FLUIDS
• SPACERS

WEIGHTED FLUIDS USED TO MAINTAIN
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE FOR WELL CONTROL

CAN BE USED IN TURBULENT OR EFFECTIVE
LAMINAR FLOW

BUOYANCY EFFECT AIDS MUD REMOVAL

SPACERS AND WASHES
• COMPATIBILITY

PREFLUSHES NEED TO BE DESIGNED TO BE
COMPATIBLE WITH BOTH MUD AND CEMENT

PREFLUSHES SHOULD NOT ADVERSELY
AFFECT RHEOLOGIES OF EITHER THE MUD OR
THE CEMENT

ANY ADVERSE EFFECT WILL RESULT IN
INCREASED ECD AND IRREVERSIBLE
CHANNELLING

GET THE TESTS DONE

LOST CIRCULATION
 StrataSeal XL & HV
 StrataSeal – Polymer
treatment that can be
pumped downhole as a
very thin fluid. Cross-
links/viscosifies with time
and temperature
 Can be mixed in rigs

slugging pit or in cement
unit

LOST CIRCULATION
 StrataSeal XL (cont.)
 Temp Range 80-180F
 Three components:
 Base Polymer
 Crosslinker
 Crosslink delay agent

LOST CIRCULATION
VARIOUS QUANTITIES
OF CROSS LINK DELAY
ADDITIVE

LOST CIRCULATION
 StrataSeal HV

LOST CIRCULATION
 PolyFX™
 StrataSeal – Polymer
treatment that can be
pumped downhole as a
very thin fluid. Cross-
links/viscosifies with time
and temperature
 Can be mixed in rigs

slugging pit or in cement
unit

LOST CIRCULATION
PolyFX™
PolyFX™
after activation
PolyFX™ PolyFX™
concentrate after 6 hrs with
15% HCL

LOST CIRCULATION

LOST CIRCULATION
MagnePlus™
Temporary Workover Control
Hole Stabilization
Lost Circulation Control

LOST CIRCULATION

LOST CIRCULATION

LOST CIRCULATION

LOST CIRCULATION

LOST CIRCULATION
SealBond™ Spacer
• Reduces lost circulation problems
– Natural or induced fractures
– Fragile and unconsolidated formations
– Depleted production zones
LOST CIRCULATION
SealBond™ Spacer
• Strengthens wellbore
– Improves low fracture gradients
– Increases margin between pore and fracture gradient
– Prevents fall back of cement tops
– Improves zonal isolation and provides improved cement bond
Typical spacer applied prior cementing SealBond applied prior cementing
LOST CIRCULATION
SealBond™ Spacer
• Reduces formation damage
– Polymeric fluid reacts to produce a reversible
LCM treatment
– Polymeric micelles removed with differential
pressure
– Preserves formation permeability
– Minimizes cement filtrate damage to
formation
SET FOR LIFE™
Set For Life™

Cement
Systems
• DeepSet™
• Duraset™
• EnviroSet
™
• LeanSet™
SET FOR LIFE™
DuraSet™
• Excellent choice for well-bores that are exposed to

intense stresses
• Enhanced mechanical properties and fracture toughness
• Used in wells with a history of sustained casing pressure
development after the cement sets
• Improved tensile and flexural strength
• Custom-made to suit specific needs
• Proven Case Histories within MER
r
t
Set for Life™ Cement Systems
• LiteSet™ Cement Systems

• DuraSet™ Cement Systems
• EnsurSet™ Cement Systems
LiteSet System
• High-performance ultra-
lightweight slurries
• Optimizes the volumetric
proportion of liquid to solids
• Contains lightweight spheres
and/or foamed
• Additives are used to increase
slurry density only to the extent
needed to meet specific well
requirements
• Unlimited design flexibility
• Maintains zonal isolation under
high induced wellbore stress
conditions
LiteSet System
• For use in low fracture gradient
environments where specific
design performance parameters
must be met
– shallow water flow mitigation
– annular gas control
– high induced stress states
• Technical Data
– Density range: 8.0 – 13.0 ppg
– Temperature range: 70°F
(21°C) to 450°F (232°C)
– Pressure up to 18000 psi
DuraSet System
• Sustained casing pressure is a
major issue
• Cement failure may be caused by
– Changes in Pressure
– Used in fields that have a history
of sustained casing pressure
development after the cement
sets
– Excellent choice for wellbores
that are exposed to intense
pressure drawdown or thermal
cycles
DuraSet System
• Provides
– Improved tensile to
compressive strength
ratio
– Lower Young’s Modulus
– Higher Poisson’s Ratio
– Improved Fracture
Toughness
• Can be foamed
• Additive combinations
allow slurries to be
adjusted to specific well
requirements
EnsurSet System
• Self healing cement
– Material swells in presence of hydrocarbon
– Plugs flow paths
• Through cement matrix
• Through micro-annulus
– Enhanced mechanical properties
• Tests performed over a wide
temperature range
• Sealed cracks up to .006”
• Capable of sealing multiple times The picture is showing the sealed induced
Crack Width of 0.003”across entry and exit port.
• Ready for field trials in Q3/Q4 2012
EnsurSet System
• Test apparatus designed and built
– Cement cured under temperature and
pressure
– Full adjustment of desired crack or
microannulus width
– Cement hydraulically cracked under
temperature
– Capable of controlling, measuring and
recording developed crack size
– Test through cracked cement matrix or
induced microannulus
– Measure and record flow and pressure
– Capable of testing with gas, oil or other
fluids
EnsurSet System
Summary
• Important to understand what is

the well challenge
• Solve the challenge – System
for almost every challenge
• Follow good cementing
practices
• Systems can be fine tuned
– To meet multiple challenges
– To meet specific well needs
Laboratory Capabilities
Slurry Preparation and Conditioning
Conditioning
– Simulates slurry agitation
– Place slurry in consistometer and continue stirring
while heating up to BHCT and pressuring up to BHP
API Mixer
Consistometers
Atmospheric Consistometers
Pressurized Consistometers Fann 35 Rotational Viscometer
Consistometer Parts
Thickening Time
• Thickening/Pump Time
– Measured by Consistometer
Atmospheric (BHCT < 194 °F)
Pressurized
– Bearden units of consistency, Bc

Related to torque imparted on the paddle shaft
Measured with a voltage potentiometer
Slurry is usually considered unpumpable at 70 – 100 Bc
– Test is performed at BHCT

Conditioning time, heat-up rate and pressure are determined by API
Spec 10 tables
Once BHCT is reached, it is maintained constant
Thickening Time (cont.)
• Types of slurry:
– Gel Set
Drag Set
– Right Angle Set

Thickening Time (cont.)
• Batch Mixing
– Slurry is conditioned (stirred) at atmospheric conditions to
simulation batch mixing time
Typically one hour
– Reported thickening time does not include batch mix time
• Hesitation Squeeze
– Second temperature heat-up (ramp) from BHSqT to BHST
– Slurry stirring is cycled on/off during second temperature ramp to
simulate hesitation method
– Generally gives shorter thickening time than Continuous Pumping
Squeeze
Fluid Loss
• Fluid loss is the rate at which water will be forced out of

the cement slurry into permeable formations, expressed in
mL/30 min
• Measured with a Fluid Loss Cell
 Slurry is mixed and conditioned to BHCT before doing leak-off
 Cell consists of a pressurized cylinder with a 325 mesh screen
insert to simulate permeable formations
 1,000 psi pressure differential is applied
 Filtrate is collected during a 30 minute interval and measured
 Standard Cell or Stirred Fluid Loss Cell
Fluid Loss Test at High Temperature
• BHCT < 194 °F
• Method 1 (Standard Fluid Loss Cell)

 Condition slurry to BHCT in pressurized consistometer
 Heat slurry to Temp
 Transfer slurry to pre-heated fluid loss cell
 Increase temperature to BHCT
 Perform fluid loss test
Fluid Loss Test at High Temperature
• BHCT > 194 °F
• Method 2 (Stirred Fluid Loss Cell)

 Condition slurry to BHCT in stirred fluid loss cell
 Invert cell
 Apply differential pressure
 Perform fluid loss test
• Safer, Easier & More Representative

Standard Fluid Loss Cell & Parts
Stirred Fluid Loss Cell
Rheology
• Rheology is the study of flow and deformation of

fluids
• Needed to calculate friction pressures and to
predict flow regimes
• Rheology is the relationship between flow rate
(shear rate) and the pressure (shear stress)
needed to move a given fluid
Shear Rate (SR) = difference in velocity of two fluid
particles divided by the distance between them
Shear Stress (SS) = frictional force created by the two
fluid particles rubbing against each other
Fann-35 Rotational Viscometer
• Stationary cup and rotating sleeve

• Internal shaft & bob
• Shear Rate
Proportional to rotational speed
Shear Rate = 1.7023 X RPM
• Shear Stress
Proportional to torque imparted on
shaft
Shear Stress = 1.065 x Dial Reading
Fann-35 Rotational Viscometer (cont.)
• Measurements are generally taken at ambient

temperature (to simulate mixing conditions) and
BHCT (to simulate pumping conditions)
• General Rules of Thumb
Low end readings (3 & 6 rpm) of less than 5 indicate
the possibility of solids settling
A low end reading of greater than 40 indicates a strong
possibility of gelation
High end readings (300 & 600 rpm) of greater than 300
could indicate difficulty in field mixing and pumping
Compatibility Testing
• Spacer / Mud
Viscous mixtures
Precipitation
• Spacer / Cement
Viscous mixtures
Premature cement setting
• Mud or Displacement Fluid / Cement
Viscous mixtures
Premature cement setting
Compatibility Testing (cont.)
• Take rheology readings of mixtures

100% spacer 0% mud
Example Test Results
Mud/Spacer Mixture Fann-35 Dial Reading

% by volume 600 300 200 100 6 3
100% Mud 42 28 22 15 4 3
95% Mud / 5% Spacer 40 27 21 14 4 3
75% Mud / 25% Spacer 35 23 19 13 3.5 3
50% Mud / 50% Spacer 25 17 13 9 3 2.5
25% Mud / 75% Spacer 20 13 11 7 2.5 2
5% Mud / 95% Spacer 16 11 9 6 2 1.5
100% Spacer 12 9 7 5 1.5 1
Example Test Results (cont.)
Spacer PV 3 n’ 0.4150
Rheology YP 6 lbs/100ft2 K’ 0.0145 lb•secn’/ft2
50
300 rpm Dial Reading
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 25 50 75 95 100
% Spacer
Wettability Tester
Compressive Strength
• Measured in psi, and is a function of Time and

Temperature
• How much do we need?
 Traditional rules of thumb
5 to 200 psi to support casing
500 psi to continue drilling
1,000 psi to perforate
Preferably 2 kpsi to stimulate & isolate zones
Enough strength to side track (more than adjacent formation)
 Mechanical integrity calculations and experience show
we may not need as much as we traditionally thought
• LOTIS Technology and IsoVision software
Measured Compressive Strength
• Unconfined Compressive Strength

• Destructive Test
Prepare conditioned slurry in 2 in2 cube molds

Cure in curing chamber to BHST
Load to failure in hydraulic press at different elapsed
times
UCA = Force / Area (psi)
Measuring Compressive Strength
Ultrasonic Cement Analyzer
• Non-destructive test
• Measures and records the inverse P-wave of
velocity through a cement slurry as a function of
time
• Unconfined compressive strength is estimated via
an empirical algorithm
• Continuous read-out
• Also plots sonic travel time, in order to calculate
attenuation time to calibrate cement bond logs
Ultrasonic Cement Analyzer (cont.)
Ultrasonic Cement Analyzer (cont.)
Free Fluid Test
• Mix and condition slurry

to BHCT
• Pour slurry into 250 mL
graduated cylinder
• Leave static 2 hours at
ambient temperature
• Either 90° or 45°
• Measure free fluid with a
pipette
Slurry Segregation & Settling
• Test measures the ability

of the slurry to maintain a
stable suspension at
downhole conditions
• Critical for deviated and

horizontal wellbores and
for gas-migration control
slurries
BP Settling Test
• Mix and condition slurry to BHCT or 194 °F

• Transfer to preheated settlement tube
• Place in pre-heated curing chamber, ramp to BHST (if
needed) and maintain for 24hrs, applying pressure
• After test period, cool to ambient temperature
• Measure settlement, in mm
• Break column into 3/4” to 1” segments
• Measure density of each segment by Archimedes method
(dipping in water)
BP Settling Test

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Basics of Well Cementing

Cementing is a Process which includes :

A Cement Slurry is defined as :

• Bonds and supports casing.

Bulk Cement Silos

Other Types of Primary Cementing :

• Inner string CASING

Conductor Casing Functions :

Surface casing Functions :

Intermediate Casing Functions :

Production Casing Functions :

(Open-hole) Liner Functions :

Standard Non - Rotating Standard Double

Typical Drill Pipe Wiper Dart

“Slim Hole” Centralizers

• Ensure well is dead; Cure all lost circulation.

 PROVIDE A HYDRAULIC BOND BETWEEN

• Raw Material Proportioned

Raw Material Proportioned Grinding Mill Slurry Pumps

Slurry is Mixed and Blended Slurry Pump Storage Basins

Portland Cement Association, 1969

Dry Mixing and Ground Raw

Fan Dust Bin Rotating Kiln Clinker Cooler

Clinker Gypsum Material are Stored Separately

Clinker and Gypsum are Proportioned

Portland Cement Association, 1969

To Bulk Transport, Rail

Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)

Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)

Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF)

C III 6.0 % 4.5 % 15.0 % 2200

MSR B II 6.0 % 3.0% 8.0 % 1600

G II 6.0 % 3.0 % 8.0 % 1800

H II 6.0 % 3.0 % 8.0 % 1600

HSR B II 6.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 1600

C III 6.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 2200

G II 6.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 1800

H II 6.0 % 3.0 % 3.0 % 1600

The chemistry of portland cement is very complicated. It starts

Cement also has the unfortunate quality of being different each

ON CONTACT WITH WATER C3S AND C2S REACT TO FORM

INITIAL SURGE OF REACTIVITY DUE TO HEAT OF HYDRATION

C-S-H EXTERNAL REACTIONS INHIBITED BY SEMI-PERMEABLE

• THIS IS CALLED THE DORMANT OR "INDUCTION" PHASE

C3S C-S-H - Gel

OSMOTIC PRESSURE WITHIN C-S-H BUILDS DUE TO

THIS CAUSES THE C-S-H MEMBRANE TO RUPTURE.

TUBULAR GROWTHS OF C-S-H (FIBRILS) FORM A NETWORK

C3S C-S-H - Gel

C3A ENTERS INTO THE REACTION WITH GYPSUM TO FORM

ETTRINGITE COATS C3A SURFACE REDUCING REACTION

ETTRINGITE THEN CONVERTS TO CALCIUM ALUMINATE

There are 9 different classes of API cement.

The classes in used today around the world are

In almost all offshore drilling areas outside of the USA Class G is

In many areas it is common to see Class A and C used on surface

Class B, very rarely used

Primary cementing is the most important operation performed on a producing well.

- In the 50’s fluid loss was identified as a key property of cement.

- Dens ity al tering addi ti ves ,

• Each cement additive is included in a slurry to change

• However, almost every additive has other effects on