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Functional Anatomy and Physiology
Functional Anatomy and Physiology
Endocrine System
(Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 13th Edition)
T3 and T4 together are also known as thyroid hormones. A few cells called parafollicular
cells lie between follicles, they produce calcitonin which helps regulate calcium homeostasis.
Endocrine System
Role of thyroid gland in energy balance and temperature regulation:
• Thyroid hormones increase basal metabolic rate (BMR) which includes increased rate of
oxygen consumption for more ATP production and increased metabolism of carbohydrates,
lipids and proteins.
• They also stimulate synthesis of additional sodium-potassium pumps which use large
amounts of ATP to continually eject sodium ions from the cytosol into the extracellular
fluid and potassium ions from the extracellular fluid into the cytosol.
• As cells produce more ATP, more heat is given off, and body temperature rises, this
phenomenon is called the calorigenic effect. In this way thyroid hormones play an
important role in the maintenance of normal body temperature.
Endocrine System
2. Thyroid Gland:
• Thyroid hormones stimulate protein synthesis and increase the use of glucose and fatty
acids for ATP production. They also increase lipolysis and enhance cholesterol excretion,
thus reducing blood cholesterol level.
• Thyroid hormones enhance some actions of the catecholamines (norepinephrine and
epinephrine) because they up-regulate beta receptors. Therefore, hyperthyroidism include
increased heart rate, more forceful heartbeats and increased blood pressure.
• Together with human growth hormone and insulin, thyroid hormones accelerate body
growth, particularly the growth of the nervous and skeletal systems. Deficiency of thyroid
hormones during fetal development, infancy, or childhood causes sever mental retardation
and stunted bone growth.
Endocrine System
2. Thyroid Gland:
• The hormone produced by parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland is calcitonin (CT). It can
decrease the level of calcium in the blood by inhibiting the action of osteoclasts, the cells
that breakdown bone extracellular matrix.
• Miacalcin, a calcitonin extract derived from salmon (fish) that is 10 times more potent than
human calcitonin, is prescribed to treat osteoporosis.
Endocrine System
3. Parathyroid Glands:
• Partially embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland are
several small, round masses of tissue called the parathyroid glands.
• Each has a mass of about 40mg (0.04g). Usually, one superior and one inferior parathyroid
gland are attached to each lateral thyroid lobe.
• It produces parathyroid hormone (PTH), also called parathormone which is the major
regulator of the levels of calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions in the blood.
• Its specific action is to increase the number and activity of osteoclasts, the result is more
bone resorption, which releases ionic calcium and phosphate into the blood.
Endocrine System
3. Parathyroid Glands:
• PTH also acts on kidneys, first it slows the rate at which calcium and magnesium ions are
lost from blood into the urine. Second, it increases loss of phosphate ions blood into urine.
So, we can say that PTH decreases phosphate ions and increases calcium and magnesium
ion levels in blood.
• PTH also promotes the formation of the hormone calcitriol, the active form of vitamin-D.
It increases rate of calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions absorption from the
gastrointestinal tract into the blood.
Endocrine System
4. Thymus:
• The thymus is a bilobed organ located behind the sternum between the lungs.
• Because of high content of lymphoid tissue and a rich blood supply, the thymus has a
reddish appearance in a living body.
• With age, however, fatty infiltration replace the lymphoid tissue and the thymus takes on
more of the yellowish colour of the invading fat, giving the false impression of reduced
size.
• Before the thymus atrophies, it populates the secondary lymphatic organs and tissues with T
cells. However, some T cells continue to proliferate in the thymus throughout an
individual’s lifetime, but this number decreases with age.
Endocrine System
5. Adrenal Glands:
• The paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands, one of which lies superior to each kidney in the
retroperitoneal space, have a flattened pyramidal shape.
• In an adult, each adrenal gland is 3-5cm in height, 2-3cm in width and a little less than
1cm thick, with a mass of 3.5-5g, only half its size at birth.
• During embryonic development, the adrenal glands differentiate into two structurally and
functionally distinct regions: a large, peripherally located adrenal cortex, comprising 80-
90% of the gland, and a small, centrally located adrenal medulla.
Endocrine System
5. Adrenal Glands:
• The adrenal gland produces steroid hormones that are essential for life. Complete loss of
adrenocortical hormones leads to death due to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances in a
few days to a week, unless hormone replacement therapy begins promptly.
Adrenal Cortex:
• Its outer zone secrete mineralocorticoids because they affect mineral homeostasis.
• Its middle zone secrete glucocorticoids because they affect glucose homeostasis.
• Its inner zone synthesize small amounts of weak androgens, steroid hormones that have
masculinizing effects.
Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex:
1. Mineralocorticoids:
• Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid. It regulates homeostasis of sodium and
potassium ions and helps adjust the blood pressure and blood volume.
• It also promotes excretion of hydrogen ions in the urine
2. Glucocorticoids:
• Cortisol (also called hydrocortisone), Corticosterone and cortisone regulate metabolism
and resistance to stress
• Cortisol is the most abundant, accounting for about 95% of glucocorticoid activity
Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex:
2. Glucocorticoids:
• They increase the rate of protein breakdown, mainly in muscle fibers, and thus increase the
liberation of amino acids into the bloodstream. The amino acids may be used by body cells
for synthesis of new proteins or for ATP production.
• On stimulation by glucocorticoids, liver cells may convert certain amino acids or lactic acid
to glucose, which neurons and other cells can use for ATP production. Such conversion of
substance other than glycogen or another monosaccharide into glucose is called
gluconeogenesis.
Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex:
2. Glucocorticoids:
• They stimulate lipolysis, the breakdown of triglycerides and release of fatty acids from
adipose tissue into the blood.
• Glucocorticoids work in many ways to provide resistance to stress. The additional glucose
supplied by the liver cells provides tissues with a ready source of ATP to combat a range of
stresses, including exercise, fasting, fright, temperature extremes, high altitude, bleeding,
infection, surgery, trauma and disease.
Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex:
2. Glucocorticoids:
• They inhibit white blood cells that participate in inflammatory responses.
• Unfortunately, they also retard tissue repair, and hence they slow wound healing. Although
high doses can cause severe mental disturbances, they are very useful in the treatment of
chronic inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis.
• High doses of glucocorticoids depress immune responses. Thus, they are prescribed for
organ transplant recipients to retard rejection by the immune system.
Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex:
3. Androgens:
• In both males and females, the adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of weak androgens.
• The major androgen secreted by the adrenal gland is dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
• After puberty in males, the androgen testosterone is also released in much greater quantity
by the testes. Thus, the amount of androgens secreted by the adrenal gland in males is
usually so low that their effects are insignificant.
• In females, however, adrenal androgens play important roles. They promote libido (sex
drive) and are converted in to estrogens (feminizing sex steroids) by other body tissues.
Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex:
3. Androgens:
• After menopause, when ovarian secretion of estrogens ceases, all female estrogens come
from conversion of adrenal androgens.
• Adrenal androgens also stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hair in boys and girls and
contribute to the prepubertal growth spurt.
• Although control of adrenal androgen secretion is not fully understood, the main hormone
that stimulates its secretion is ACTH.
Endocrine System
Adrenal Medulla:
• It is the inner region of adrenal gland and is the modified sympathetic ganglion of
autonomic nervous system (ANS).
• Two major hormones synthesized by the adrenal medulla are epinephrine and
norepinephrine, also called adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively.
• These hormones are secreted during exercise and stressful situations and greatly augment the
fight-or-flight response.
• By increasing heart rate and force of contraction, epinephrine and norepinephrine increase
the output of the heart, which increases blood pressure.
• They also increase blood flow to the heart, liver, skeletal muscles and adipose tissue; dilate
airways to the lungs and increase blood levels of glucose and fatty acids.
Endocrine System
6. Renal:
• Kidneys secrete different hormones which are as follow:
Renin:
Part of reaction sequence that raises blood pressure by bringing about vasoconstriction and
secretion of aldosterone
Erythropoietin (EPO):
Increases rate of red blood cell formation
Calcitriol (active form of vitamin D):
Aids in absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus