Functional Anatomy and Physiology

Endocrine System
(Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 13th Edition)

Slide created by Nawal Rabbani

 Endocrine System
• A control system of ductless glands that secrete hormones which circulate via the
bloodstream to affect cells within specific organs is called endocrine system
• A hormone is a mediator molecule that is released in one part of the body but regulates the
activity of cells in other parts of the body
• The nervous and endocrine systems act together to coordinate functions of all body systems
• Endocrine glands include the following:

1. Pituitary Gland 4. Adrenal Gland

2. Thyroid Gland 5. Pineal Gland
3. Parathyroid Gland
 Endocrine System
• In addition, several organs and tissues are not exclusively classified as endocrine glands but
contain cells that secrete hormones. These include the hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas,
ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissues and
placenta
• Together, all the endocrine glands and hormone-secreting cells constitute the endocrine
system.
• The science of the structure and function of the endocrine glands and the diagnosis and
treatment of disorders of the endocrine system is endocrinology.
 Endocrine System
1. Pituitary Gland:
• For many years, the pituitary gland or hypophysis was called the “master” endocrine
gland because it secretes several hormones that control other endocrine glands.
• But today we know that the pituitary gland itself has a master, the hypothalamus.
• Cells in the hypothalamus synthesize at least nine different hormones, and the pituitary
gland secretes seven.
• The pituitary gland is a pea-shaped structure that measures 1-1.5cm in diameter, it attaches
to the hypothalamus by a stalk, the infundibulum.
• The anterior pituitary (anterior lobe), also called the adenohypophysis, accounts for
about 75% of the total weight of the gland and is composed of epithelial tissue
 Endocrine System
1. Pituitary Gland:
• The posterior pituitary (posterior lobe), also called the neurohypophysis, is composed of
neural tissue.
• A third region of the pituitary gland called the pars intermedia atrophies during human
fetal development and ceases to exist as a separate lobe in adults. However, some of its
cells migrate into adjacent parts of the anterior pituitary, where they persist.
Anterior Pituitary:
• It secretes hormones that regulate a wide range of body activities, from growth to
reproduction.
• The anterior pituitary hormones that act on other endocrine glands are called tropic
hormones.
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Anterior Pituitary:
• Anterior pituitary hormones are as follows:
• Somatotrophs (human growth hormone (hCG), also known as somatotropin. It
stimulates several tissues to secrete insulin-like growth factors, hormones that stimulate
general body growth and regulate aspects of metabolism.
• Thyrotrophs secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), also known as thyrotropin.
TSH controls the secretions and other activities of the thyroid gland (secretion of
triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4))
• Gonadotrophs secrete two gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH and LH both act on the gonads. They stimulate secretion
of estrogens and progesterone and the maturation of oocytes in the ovaries, and they
stimulate sperm production and secretion of testosterone in the testis.
 Endocrine System
Anterior Pituitary:
• LH triggers ovulation, formation of corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone. Estrogen
and progesterone prepare the uterus for implantation of a fertilized ovum and help prepare
the mammary glands for milk secretion.
• Lactotrophs secrete prolactin (PRL), which initiates and maintains milk production in the
mammary glands. Ejection of the milk from the mammary glands depends on the hormone
oxytocin, which is released from posterior pituitary.
• Corticotrophs secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), also known as
corticotropin, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids such as
cortisol. Some corticotrophs, remnants of the pars intermedia, also secrete melanocyte-
stimulating hormone (MSH), which increases skin pigmentation
 Endocrine System
Posterior Pituitary:
• Although the posterior pituitary does not synthesize hormones, it does store and release two
hormones (Oxytocin & Antidiuretic hormone).
• Oxytocin released during and after delivery of a baby affects two target tissues, the
mother’s uterus and breasts.
• During delivery, stretching of the cervix of the uterus stimulates the release of oxytocin
which in turn, enhances contraction of smooth muscle cells in the wall of the uterus.
• After delivery, it stimulates, milk ejection from the mammary glands in response to the
mechanical stimulus provided by a suckling infant.
• The function of oxytocin in males and in nonpregnant females is not clear
 Endocrine System
Posterior Pituitary:
• Antidiuretic Hormone also known as vasopressin, is a substance that decreases urine
production by increasing water absorption in the kidneys.
• In absence of ADH, urine output increases more than tenfold, from normal 1-2 liters to
about 20 liters a day.
• Drinking alcohol often causes frequent and copious urination because alcohol inhibits
secretion of ADH.
• ADH also decreases water loss through sweating and causes constriction of arterioles,
which increases blood pressure
 Endocrine System
2. Thyroid Gland:
• The butterfly-shaped thyroid gland is located just inferior to the larynx (voice box). The
normal mass of the thyroid is about 30g.
• It is composed of right and left lateral lobes, one on either side of the trachea, that are
connected by an isthmus anterior to the trachea.
• About 50% of the thyroid glands have a small third lobe, called the pyramidal lobe. It
extends superiorly from the isthmus.
• Microscopic spherical sacs called thyroid follicles make up most of the thyroid gland.
• The wall of each follicle consists primarily of cells called follicular cells, most of which
extend to the lumen of the follicle.
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2. Thyroid Gland:
• The follicular cells produce two hormones:
Thyroxine:
• It is also called tetraiodothyronine or T4 because it contains four atoms of iodine
Triiodothyronine:
• It is also called triiodothyronine or T3 which contains three atoms of iodine

T3 and T4 together are also known as thyroid hormones. A few cells called parafollicular
cells lie between follicles, they produce calcitonin which helps regulate calcium homeostasis.
 Endocrine System
Role of thyroid gland in energy balance and temperature regulation:
• Thyroid hormones increase basal metabolic rate (BMR) which includes increased rate of
oxygen consumption for more ATP production and increased metabolism of carbohydrates,
lipids and proteins.
• They also stimulate synthesis of additional sodium-potassium pumps which use large
amounts of ATP to continually eject sodium ions from the cytosol into the extracellular
fluid and potassium ions from the extracellular fluid into the cytosol.
• As cells produce more ATP, more heat is given off, and body temperature rises, this
phenomenon is called the calorigenic effect. In this way thyroid hormones play an
important role in the maintenance of normal body temperature.
 Endocrine System
2. Thyroid Gland:
• Thyroid hormones stimulate protein synthesis and increase the use of glucose and fatty
acids for ATP production. They also increase lipolysis and enhance cholesterol excretion,
thus reducing blood cholesterol level.
• Thyroid hormones enhance some actions of the catecholamines (norepinephrine and
epinephrine) because they up-regulate beta receptors. Therefore, hyperthyroidism include
increased heart rate, more forceful heartbeats and increased blood pressure.
• Together with human growth hormone and insulin, thyroid hormones accelerate body
growth, particularly the growth of the nervous and skeletal systems. Deficiency of thyroid
hormones during fetal development, infancy, or childhood causes sever mental retardation
and stunted bone growth.
 Endocrine System
2. Thyroid Gland:
• The hormone produced by parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland is calcitonin (CT). It can
decrease the level of calcium in the blood by inhibiting the action of osteoclasts, the cells
that breakdown bone extracellular matrix.
• Miacalcin, a calcitonin extract derived from salmon (fish) that is 10 times more potent than
human calcitonin, is prescribed to treat osteoporosis.
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3. Parathyroid Glands:
• Partially embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland are
several small, round masses of tissue called the parathyroid glands.
• Each has a mass of about 40mg (0.04g). Usually, one superior and one inferior parathyroid
gland are attached to each lateral thyroid lobe.
• It produces parathyroid hormone (PTH), also called parathormone which is the major
regulator of the levels of calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions in the blood.
• Its specific action is to increase the number and activity of osteoclasts, the result is more
bone resorption, which releases ionic calcium and phosphate into the blood.
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3. Parathyroid Glands:
• PTH also acts on kidneys, first it slows the rate at which calcium and magnesium ions are
lost from blood into the urine. Second, it increases loss of phosphate ions blood into urine.
So, we can say that PTH decreases phosphate ions and increases calcium and magnesium
ion levels in blood.
• PTH also promotes the formation of the hormone calcitriol, the active form of vitamin-D.
It increases rate of calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions absorption from the
gastrointestinal tract into the blood.
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4. Thymus:
• The thymus is a bilobed organ located behind the sternum between the lungs.
• Because of high content of lymphoid tissue and a rich blood supply, the thymus has a
reddish appearance in a living body.
• With age, however, fatty infiltration replace the lymphoid tissue and the thymus takes on
more of the yellowish colour of the invading fat, giving the false impression of reduced
size.
• Before the thymus atrophies, it populates the secondary lymphatic organs and tissues with T
cells. However, some T cells continue to proliferate in the thymus throughout an
individual’s lifetime, but this number decreases with age.
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5. Adrenal Glands:
• The paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands, one of which lies superior to each kidney in the
retroperitoneal space, have a flattened pyramidal shape.
• In an adult, each adrenal gland is 3-5cm in height, 2-3cm in width and a little less than
1cm thick, with a mass of 3.5-5g, only half its size at birth.
• During embryonic development, the adrenal glands differentiate into two structurally and
functionally distinct regions: a large, peripherally located adrenal cortex, comprising 80-
90% of the gland, and a small, centrally located adrenal medulla.
 Endocrine System
5. Adrenal Glands:
• The adrenal gland produces steroid hormones that are essential for life. Complete loss of
adrenocortical hormones leads to death due to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances in a
few days to a week, unless hormone replacement therapy begins promptly.
Adrenal Cortex:
• Its outer zone secrete mineralocorticoids because they affect mineral homeostasis.
• Its middle zone secrete glucocorticoids because they affect glucose homeostasis.
• Its inner zone synthesize small amounts of weak androgens, steroid hormones that have
masculinizing effects.
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Adrenal Cortex:
1. Mineralocorticoids:
• Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid. It regulates homeostasis of sodium and
potassium ions and helps adjust the blood pressure and blood volume.
• It also promotes excretion of hydrogen ions in the urine
2. Glucocorticoids:
• Cortisol (also called hydrocortisone), Corticosterone and cortisone regulate metabolism
and resistance to stress
• Cortisol is the most abundant, accounting for about 95% of glucocorticoid activity
 Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex:
2. Glucocorticoids:
• They increase the rate of protein breakdown, mainly in muscle fibers, and thus increase the
liberation of amino acids into the bloodstream. The amino acids may be used by body cells
for synthesis of new proteins or for ATP production.
• On stimulation by glucocorticoids, liver cells may convert certain amino acids or lactic acid
to glucose, which neurons and other cells can use for ATP production. Such conversion of
substance other than glycogen or another monosaccharide into glucose is called
gluconeogenesis.
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Adrenal Cortex:
2. Glucocorticoids:
• They stimulate lipolysis, the breakdown of triglycerides and release of fatty acids from
adipose tissue into the blood.
• Glucocorticoids work in many ways to provide resistance to stress. The additional glucose
supplied by the liver cells provides tissues with a ready source of ATP to combat a range of
stresses, including exercise, fasting, fright, temperature extremes, high altitude, bleeding,
infection, surgery, trauma and disease.
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Adrenal Cortex:
2. Glucocorticoids:
• They inhibit white blood cells that participate in inflammatory responses.
• Unfortunately, they also retard tissue repair, and hence they slow wound healing. Although
high doses can cause severe mental disturbances, they are very useful in the treatment of
chronic inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis.
• High doses of glucocorticoids depress immune responses. Thus, they are prescribed for
organ transplant recipients to retard rejection by the immune system.
 Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex:
3. Androgens:
• In both males and females, the adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of weak androgens.
• The major androgen secreted by the adrenal gland is dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
• After puberty in males, the androgen testosterone is also released in much greater quantity
by the testes. Thus, the amount of androgens secreted by the adrenal gland in males is
usually so low that their effects are insignificant.
• In females, however, adrenal androgens play important roles. They promote libido (sex
drive) and are converted in to estrogens (feminizing sex steroids) by other body tissues.
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Adrenal Cortex:
3. Androgens:
• After menopause, when ovarian secretion of estrogens ceases, all female estrogens come
from conversion of adrenal androgens.
• Adrenal androgens also stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hair in boys and girls and
contribute to the prepubertal growth spurt.
• Although control of adrenal androgen secretion is not fully understood, the main hormone
that stimulates its secretion is ACTH.
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Adrenal Medulla:
• It is the inner region of adrenal gland and is the modified sympathetic ganglion of
autonomic nervous system (ANS).
• Two major hormones synthesized by the adrenal medulla are epinephrine and
norepinephrine, also called adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively.
• These hormones are secreted during exercise and stressful situations and greatly augment the
fight-or-flight response.
• By increasing heart rate and force of contraction, epinephrine and norepinephrine increase
the output of the heart, which increases blood pressure.
• They also increase blood flow to the heart, liver, skeletal muscles and adipose tissue; dilate
airways to the lungs and increase blood levels of glucose and fatty acids.
 Endocrine System
6. Renal:
• Kidneys secrete different hormones which are as follow:
Renin:
Part of reaction sequence that raises blood pressure by bringing about vasoconstriction and
secretion of aldosterone
Erythropoietin (EPO):
Increases rate of red blood cell formation
Calcitriol (active form of vitamin D):
Aids in absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus