Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Anthropology Power Point
Anthropology Power Point
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Anthropology is the study of people—
their origins,
their development,
contemporary variations of human being and its life.
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1.2.1 Physical/Biological Anthropology
is closely related to the natural sciences, particularly biology
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1.2.1 Archaeological Anthropology
Archaeological anthropology studies
the ways of lives of past peoples by excavating and analyzing the
material culture/physical remains (artifacts, features and eco-facts)
they left behind.
Artifacts are material remains made and used by the past peoples and
that can be removed from the site and taken to the laboratory for
further analysis.
Tools, ornaments, arrowheads, coins, and fragments of pottery are
examples of artifacts.
Features are like artifacts, are made or modified by past people, but
they cannot be readily carried away from the site.
Archaeological features include such things as house foundations,
ancient buildings, fireplaces, steles, and postholes.
Eco-facts are non-artefactual, organic and environmental remains 8
such as soil, animal bones, and plant remains that were not made or
altered by humans; but were used by them.
1.2.3 Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic anthropology studies human language as a cultural
resource and its social and cultural context across space and time.
Language is basically a system of information transmission and
reception.
Humans communicate messages by
sound (speech),
by gesture (body language), and
in other visual ways such as writing.
Linguistic anthropology, which studies contemporary human
languages as well as those of the past, is divided into four distinct
branches:
Structural or Descriptive Linguistics,
Historical Linguistics,
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Ethno-Linguistics, and
Socio-linguistics.
1.2.4 Socio-Cultural Anthropology
It deals with human society and culture.
Society is the group of people who have similar ways of life, but
culture is a way of life of a group of people.
Society and culture are two sides of the same coin.
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Itconsiders insiders' views as a primary focus of its
inquiry.
Anthropological studies give attention to
how people perceive themselves and understand their
world;
how a particular group of people explain about their
action, or
give meaning to their behavior or cultural practices.
This is what anthropologists call emic perspective.
It helps to understand the logic and justification
behind group behavior and cultural practices.
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Another important unique feature is its research approach.
Its is highly dependent on qualitative research to understand the
meaning behind any human activity.
extended fieldwork,
participant observation,
in-depth and key informant interviews and
focus-group discussion are qualitative research instruments to explore
information change and continuities in human societies.
Ethnographic fieldwork is an important strategy is normally required
to spend a year or more with research subjects and document realities
occurring across time.
Focusing more on the local than the big social processes has been
another exclusive approach in the discipline.
Paying great attention to local or micro-social processes certainly help
us to better understand big changes in societies.
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A detailed account of an event or phenomenon discovers multiple
realities in a community.
1.4 Misconceptions about anthropology
Due to lack of awareness about the nature, scope and subject matter of
the discipline, different misconceptions are held about anthropology.
One misconception about anthropology is related to
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3. Culture Is Symbolic:
Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural
learning.
A symbol is something verbal or nonverbal, within a particular
language or culture that comes to stand for something else.
4. Culture Is All-Encompassing
Culture encompasses all aspects, which affect people in their
everyday lives.
Culture comprises countless material and non-material aspects of
human lives.
Culture is the sum total of human creation: intellectual, technical,
artistic, physical, and moral; it is the complex pattern of living that
directs human social life, and which each new generation must learn
and to which they eventually add with the dynamics of the social
world and the changing environmental conditions. 21
5. Culture Is Integrated:
When we view cultures as integrated systems, we can see
how particular culture traits fit into the whole system and,
consequently, how they tend to make sense within that
context.
A culture is a system, change in one aspect will likely
generate changes in other aspects.
The physical human body comprises a number of systems,
all functioning to maintain the overall health of the
organisms, including among others, such system as the
respiratory system, the digestive system, the skeletal
system, excretory system, the reproductive system, and
lymphatic system.
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6. Culture Can Be Adaptive and Maladaptive:
Humans have both biological and cultural ways of coping
with environmental stresses.
Besides our biological means of adaptation, we also use
"cultural adaptive kits," which contain customary activities
and tools that aid us.
People adapt themselves to the environment using culture.
Every culture contains its own unique pattern of behavior which may seem alien
to people from other cultural backgrounds.
We cannot understand the practices and beliefs separately from the wider
culture of which they are part.
A culture has to be studied in terms of its own meanings and values.
or backward.
Respect for cultural differences involves:
Appreciating cultural diversity;
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2.6 Culture Change
Culture change can occur as a result of the following Mechanisms:
Acculturation
Invention
Globalization
Diffusion
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2.7 Ties That Connect: Marriage, Family and Kinship
2.7.1 MARRIAGE:
Almost all known societies recognize marriage.
The ritual of marriage marks a change in status for a man and a woman and
the acceptance by society of the new family that is formed.
The term marriage is not an easy terms to define.
The most common form of prohibition is mating with certain type of kin that
are defined by the society as being inappropriate sexual partners.
These prohibitions on mating with certain categories of relatives known as
incest taboos.
The most universal form of incest taboo involves mating between members
of the immediate (nuclear) family: mother-sons, father-daughters, and
brother-sisters.
There are a few striking examples of marriage between members of the
immediate family that violate the universality of the incest taboo.
For political, religious, or economic reasons, members of the royal families
among the ancient Egyptians, Incas and Hawaiians were permitted to mate
with and marry their siblings, although this practiced did not extended to the
ordinary members of those societies.
Marriage is, therefore, a permanent legal union between a man and a woman.
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It is an important institution without which the society could never be
sustained.
2.7.1.2 Mate Selection: Whom Should You Marry?
In a society one cannot marry anyone whom he or she likes.
a) Exogamy:
This is the rule by which a man is not allowed to marry someone
from his own social group.
Such prohibited union is designated as incest.
Different scholars had tried to find out the explanation behind this
prohibition. i.e. how incest taboo came into operation.
In fact, there are some definite reasons for which practice of
exogamy got approval.
They are: A conception of blood relation prevails among the
members of a group. 36
Therefore, marriage within the group-members is considered a
marriage between a brother and sister
b) Endogamy:
A rule of endogamy requires individuals to marry
within their own group and forbids them to marry
outside it.
Religious groups such as the Amish, Mormons,
Catholics, and Jews have rules of endogamy, though
these are often violated when marriage take place
outside the group.
Castes in India and Nepal are also endogamous.
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c) Preferential Cousin Marriage:
A common form of preferred marriage is called preferential cousin marriage
and is practiced in one form or another in most of the major regions of the
world.
This type of marriage include;
Cross Cousins: are children of siblings of the opposite sex- that is one’s
mother’s brothers’ children and one’s father’s sisters’ children.
The most common form of preferential cousin marriage is between cross
cousins because it functions to strengthen and maintain ties between kin
groups established by the marriages that took place in the proceeding
generation.
Parallel Cousins: When marriage takes place between the children of the
siblings of the same sex, it is called parallel cousin marriage. are children of
siblings of the same sex, namely the children of one’s mother’s sister and
one’s father brother.
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d) The Levirate and Sororate
Another form of mate selection that tends to limit individual choice
are those that require a person to marry the husband or wide of
deceased kin.
The levirate- is the custom whereby a widow is expected to marry
the brother (or some close male relative) of her dead husband.
Usually any children fathered by the woman’s new husband are
considered to belong legally to the dead brother rather than to the
actual genitor.
The sororate, which comes into play when a wife dies, is the practice
of a widower’s marrying the sister (or some close female relative) of
his deceased wife.
In the event that the deceased spouse has no sibling, the family of the
deceased is under a general obligation to supply some equivalent
relative as a substitute. 39
2.7.1.3. NUMBER OF SPOUSES
Societies have rules regulating whom one may/may not marry; they
have rules specifying how many mates a person may/should have.
Monogamy: the marriage of one man to one woman at a time.
Having multiple wives means wealth, power, & status both for the
polygnous husband, wives and children.
It produces more children, who are considered valuable for future
economic and political assets.
Economic advantage: It encourages to work hard (more cows,
goats..) for more wives
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2.7.1.4 Economic Consideration of Marriage
Most societies view as a binding contract between at least
the husband and wife and, in many cases, between their
respective families as well.
Such a contract includes the transfer of certain rights
between the parties involved: rights of sexual access, legal
rights to children, and rights of the spouses to each other’s
economic goods and services.
Often the transfer of rights is accompanied by the transfer of
some type of economic consideration.
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These transactions, which may take place either before or after the marriage can
be divided into three categories: Bride Price, Bride Service and Dowry
1.Bride Price:
It is also known as bride wealth, is the compensation given upon marriage by the
family of the groom to the family of the bride.
2. Bride Service:
When the groom works for his wife’s family, this is known as bride service.
It may be recalled that in the Old Testament, Jacob labored for seven years in
order to marry Leah, and then another seven years to marry Rachel; Leah’s
younger sister, thus performed fourteen years of bride service for his father-in-
law.
3. Dowry:
A dowry involves a transfer of goods or money in the opposite direction, from the
bride's family to the groom’s family.
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2.7.1.5 Post-Marital Residence
Where the newly married couple lives after the marriage ritual is
governed by cultural rules, which are referred to as post-marital
residence rule.
Patrilocal Residence: the married couple lives with or near the
relatives of the husband’s father.
Matrilocal Residence: the married couple lives with or near the
relatives of the wife.
Avunculocal Residence: The married couple lives with or near the
husband’s mother’s brother.
Ambilocal/Bilocal Residence: The married couple has a choice of
living with relatives of the wife or relatives of the husband
Neolocal Residence: The Married couple forms an independent
place of residence away from the relatives of either spouse.
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2.7.2 FAMILY
Family is universal institution and the basis of human society.
There are 2 types of family structure-the nuclear family and the extended family.
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Sexual cohabitation between spouses automatically leads to
the birth of off-springs.
The task of perpetuating the population of a society is an
important function of a family.
Society reproduces itself through family.
2. Economic Function:
Marriage brings economic co-operation between men and
women and ensure survival of individuals in a society.
With the birth of off-springs the division of labor based on
sex and generation come into play.
In small scale societies family is a self-contained economic
unit of production, consumption and distribution.
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3. Social Function:
Marriage is based on the desire to perpetuate one’s family line.
In marriage one adds, not only a spouse but most of the spouse’s
relatives to one’s own group of kin.
This means the institution of marriage brings with it the creation and
perpetuation of the family, the form of person to person relations and
linking once kin group to another kin group.
4. Educational and Socialization Function:
The burden of socialization (via processes of enculturation and
education) of new born infants fall primarily upon the family.
In addition, children learn an immense amount of knowledge, culture,
values prescribed by society, before they assume their place as adult
members of a society.
The task of educating and enculturating children is distributed among
parents. 48
Moreover, family behaves as an effective agent in the transmission of
social heritage.
2.7.3 KINSHIP
The family in which he was born and reared is called ‘family of
orientation’.
The other family to which he establishes relation through marriage is
called ‘family of procreation’.
A kinship system is neither a social group nor does it correspond to
organized aggregation of individuals.
It is a structured system of relationships where individuals are bound
together by complex interlocking and ramifying ties.
The desire for reproduction gives rise to another kind of binding
relationship.
“This kind of bond, which arises out of a socially or legally defined
marital relationship, is called a final relationship”, and the relatives
so related are called ‘a final kin’.
The final kinds [husband and wife] are not related to one another49
through blood.
2.7.4 DESCENT
Descent refers to the social recognition of the biological relationship
that exists between the individuals.
The rule of descent refers to a set of principles by which an individual
traces his descent.
In almost all societies kinship connections are very significant.
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1. Patrilineal descent
When descent is traced solely through the male line, it is
called patrilineal descent.
A man’s sons and daughters all belong to the same descent
group by birth, but it only the sons who continue the
affiliation.
Succession and inheritance pass through the male line.
2. Matrilineal descent
When the descent is traced solely through the female line.
generation.
3. Cognatic Descent
In some society’s individuals are free to show their
genealogical links either through men or women.
Some people of such society are therefore
connected with the kin-group of father and others
with the kin group of mothers.
There is no fixed rule to trace the succession and
inheritance; any combination of lineal link is
possible in such societies.
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Unit-Three: Human Diversity, Culture Areas and Contact in
Ethiopia
Reading Assignment
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Unit Four: Marginalized, Minorities, and Vulnerable Groups
4.1 Definition of concepts
What is marginalization?
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The nature and level of marginalization varies from society
to society as a result of cultural diversity.
Religious, ethnic, and racial minorities are also among
social groups marginalized in different societies and
cultures.
Crafts workers such as tanners, potters, and ironsmiths are
marginalized in many parts of Ethiopia.
What is vulnerability?
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Gender disparities in education, and GBV/VAWGs are good
examples.
Girls in developing countries, especially those who live in remote
and rural areas, are excluded from formal education.
The enrollment of girls in higher education is much lower than that of
boys.
Women do not enjoy equal employment opportunities.
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4.3 Marginalized occupational groups
According to anthropological findings, there are occupational
marginalized groups in many parts of Ethiopia.
Marginalized occupational groups in Ethiopia include; tanners,
potters, weavers and ironsmiths.
These craft-workers have different names indifferent parts of the
country.
Craft-workers such as potters and tanners are considered as impure
and excluded from social interactions, ownership of economic
resources (e.g., land), and participation in associations and
celebrations.
They have important contributions to their communities; however,
they are marginalized by the dominant and majority groups.
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For examples, weavers produce cultural clothes highly
demanded by thousands and millions of people.
Many people use cultural clothes during annual
celebrations, religious holidays, weddings, culture days,
and mourning.
The demand of cultural dresses has been increasing in the
last three decades.
People dress cultural clothes in different occasions such as
cultural festivals, days of nations and nationalities, and
religious celebrations.
Despite their contributions, weavers are marginalized from
the wider society.
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Ironsmiths are among occupational groups marginalized in many
cultural setting in Ethiopia.
Ironsmiths make and repair iron articles without using machines.
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Type of marginalization Manifestations of marginalization
Spatial marginalization
Craft-workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages, near to forests,
on poor land, around steep slopes.
They are segregated at market places (they sell their goods at the
outskirts of markets).
When they walk along the road, they are expected to give way for
others and walk on the lower side of the road.
Economic marginalization
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Social marginalization
Craft-workers are excluded from intermarriage, they do not share
burial places with others; they are excluded from membership of
associations such as iddirs.
When marginalized groups are allowed to participate in social
events, they must sit on the floor separately-sometimes outside the
house ornear the door.
Cultural marginalization
Occupational minorities are labelled as impure and polluting; they
are accused of eating animals that have died without being
slaughtered;
Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable, lacking
morality, respect and shame.
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4.4 Age-based vulnerability
What is age-based vulnerability?
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4.4.1 Children: Discrimination/vulnerability
Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age.
Both boys and girls are exposed to some harm and abuse in the hands of
older people.
However, girls are exposed to double marginalization and discrimination
because of the gender.
Child girls are exposed to various kinds of harm before they reach at the age
of maturity.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, girls are exposed to HTPs such as female
genital cutting.
Minor girls are also exposed to early/child marriage in many parts of
Ethiopia.
Early/child marriage: Early marriage refers to marriage which involves girls
below the age of 18.
The prevalence of early marriage is declining in Ethiopia and other African
countries. 66
However, it is still widely practiced in different regions of Ethiopia.
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Factors of early marriage
Social norms: Social norms contribute a lot for the
continuation of early marriage in many parts of the
world.
Chastity of girls is one of the social norms that
influence parents to protect girls from pre-marital
sex.
The value attached to virginity is another driver of
early marriage.
Girl’s reputation and family social status are
associated with sexual purity of girls.
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Parents incline to marry off their daughter before the girl
reach at the stage of poverty to avoid the possibility of pre-
marital sex and love affair.
Economic factors are among the major factors that drive
child marriage.
In many areas of Ethiopia marriage provides economic
security for young girls.
Hence, parents, in some cases girls, support early marriage
for economic benefits such as access to land and other
resources.
Parents’ desire to get a good husband for their daughter is
also another reason.
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4.4.2 Marginalization of older persons
We have discussed age-based marginalization considering the
vulnerability of children.
Age-based marginalization also affects older people.
The phrase ‘older people’ refers to adults with the age of 60 and
above.
The number of older people is increasing globally.
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4.6. Human right approaches and inclusiveness
All forms of marginalization and discrimination against vulnerable
and minority groups contradict the principles of human rights.
The major human rights conventions denounce discrimination against
women, children, people with disability, older people and other
minority and vulnerable groups.
People with disabilities have the right to inclusive services and equal
opportunities.
The human rights of women and girls include right to be free from
harmful traditional practices such as forced marriage, early marriage,
and female genital cutting.
Any form of discrimination, exclusion, and gender-based violence
also violate the human rights girls and women.
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Anthropology appreciates cultural diversity and commonality.
Do you remember the meaning of cultural relativism? It is one of the
guiding principles in social anthropology.
It is about the importance of understanding the values, norms,
customs and practices of a particular culture in its own context.
This requires appreciating the life styles of others including their
dressing styles, food habits, beliefs, rituals and celebrations.
It also requires avoiding value judgments such as saying ‘this custom
is backward or primitive’.
This does not mean that we need to appreciate every custom and
practice.
Anthropologists do not support/appreciate cultural practices that
violate the rights and wellbeing of individuals and
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CHAPTER FIVE: IDENTITY, ETHNICITY AND RACE
Introduction
Human beings have the ability to think about and reflect upon the
nature of the social world and their position in that world.
This ability allows to develop values and norms that characterize the
culture of a society.
The creative dimension of human consciousness enable to impose
meaning and purpose on events.
The cultural values and norms we create reflect back upon us.
This shapes the way we think and act (through the general
socialization process in society).
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Major theoretical dilemma for social scientists.
1. Our consciousness gives us the ability to create
societies and, theoretically at least, to shape them
in any way that we choose.
In this respect, people clearly create society.
2. On the other hand, the societies we create take on
a life of their own that is separate from each
individual (that is, we experience society as a force
acting on our range and choice of behavior).
If we have to be socialized into becoming a recognizable human
being and this socialization process reflects the values and
norms of cultures and subcultures, then effectively society is
creating us, not the other way around. 78
Definitions
Identity is widely used & it means many d/t things to d/t pple.
Identity -the distinctive character belonging to any given individual,
or shared by all members of a particular social category or group.
It emphasizes the sharing of a degree of sameness or oneness with
others of a particular characteristicIdentity-a sense of integration of
the self, in which different aspects come together in a unified whole.
social identity refers specifically to those aspects of a person that are
defined in terms of his or her group memberships.
Although most people are members of many different groups, only
some of those groups are meaningful in terms of how we define
ourselves.
our self-definition is shared with other people who also claim that
categorical membership, e.g. as a woman, as a Muslim, as a marathon
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runner, or as a Democrat.
Korostelina (2009) defined social identity in terms of
Membership- The meaning of this identity can be
found in the answer to the question ―Who am I as
X? where X is the group or social category.
Role- a social group is a set of individuals who
interact by accepting different interconnected roles.
Individuals have different social identities depending on their
roles and positions within a group.
CollectiveSocial Identity- collective identity can be
described through the achievement of a collective
aim for which this group has been created.
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James D. Pearson (1999) reviewed identity as
Is people's concepts of who they are, of what sort of people they are,
and how they relate to others" .
describe the way individuals and groups define themselves and are
defined by others on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, language,
and culture".
the ways in which individuals and collectivities are distinguished in
their social relations with other individuals and collectivities.
National identity describes that condition in which a mass of people
have made the same identification with national symbols {have
internalized the symbols of the nation ..." .
Identities
are relatively stable, role-specific
understandings and expectations about self" .
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Social identities are sets of meanings that an actor
attributes to itself while taking the perspective of
others, that is, as a social object.
The term [identity] (by convention) references
mutually constructed and evolving images of self
and other".
Identities are prescriptive representations of
political actors themselves and of their
relationships to each other" (Kowert and Legro
1996, 453).
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Our identity is defined by the commitments and
identifications which provide the frame or horizon within
which we can try to determine from case to case what is
good, or valuable, or what ought to be done, or what we
endorse or oppose".
Identity is any source of action not understandable from
biophysical regularities, and to which observers can
attribute meaning"
Identity is objectively defined as location in a certain world
and can be subjectively appropriated only along with that
world.
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Identity is not a fixed point but an ambivalent point.
Identity is also the relationship of the Other to oneself.
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Self and identity
Self is distinct identity that we create that sets us apart
from others.
It changes from time to time.
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Age
is rooted in biological development.
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Region
Region (or geographic location) is a further example of the way we use our
perception of physical objects (in this case, places where we were born or
now live) as a means of constructing a sense of identity (both personal and
group).
Initially we can focus on two main aspects of region:
The Concepts of Nation and Nationality; and
The idea of Regional Variations within different Nations.
The concept of a Nation (and, as a consequence, the concept of nationality)
relates, geographically, to the idea of dividing the world into various States
(hence the concept of a Nation-state).
That is, the people who are born and live within certain geographic
boundaries have a sense of belonging to or being a part of a particular
Nation.
People imagine themselves to have a specific nationality.
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Multiplicity and Inter-sectionality of social identity
Multiple identities & having separate identities
Theories emanating from personality psychology focus on
the possibilities for integrating multiple identities into a
single identity.
Within that particular tradition, the successful resolution of
potential conflicts among identities is seen as a criterion of
the healthy personality.
There is general agreement among experts of identities that social roles
somehow provide cohesiveness for society, and promote order and
stability which permit individuals to live in relative harmony.
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Besides, there is intersectionality among various social identities.
Intersectionality refer to the specific conditions that exist when one
holds two or more social statuses.
Often discussion has focused on the intersections of race and gender,
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Development and Change of identity
Identity overlaps and intersections cannot be examined in a vacuum.
1. Identity development/formation,
2. Identity construction, and
3. Identity negotiation.
Identity development/formation refers to the cognitive
developmental processes that each individual undergoes throughout
the maturation process as s/he explores his or her place in the world
and develops a unique sense of self.
Different developmental stages and variations according to age,
gender, ethnicity, race, and culture.
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The role of various factors in identity development
This includes an examination of the impact of
place of birth,
migration experience,
religious affiliation,
cultural differences,
parenting,
socialization,
education, the state, language, cultural forms and industries,
moral factors, value orientations, in addition to racism and
hate/bias activity.
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People have multiple social identities characterized by
distinct attributes and behaviors
Many identification processes occur
Identity construction refers to the creation,
formulation and expression of personal and/or social
identities for the self, either by individuals or groups
Identity negotiation refers to the political nature of
personal and social identification of self and/or other,
between or among, and by or within groups, via the
interactions
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of individuals.
Identities can be ascribed, achieved, or simply
assumed both by individuals and collectivities.
Consideration of identity construction and negotiation
reveals that identities are not simply ascribed or achieved
as part of the individual's socialisation and developmental
process.
Instead, they are socially constructed and negotiated,
both by individuals and social groups.
Thus, these two processes help to inform the very range of
socially-salient identities from which individuals can select.
Identity construction and negotiation reveals important
identification discrepancies.
Are indicative of both personal struggles and important
societal tensions
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Certainly the forces of socialization act on the individual
to define gender.
Parents describe their newborn children differently as a
function of gender—daughters are seen as more delicate
(gentle)and sons as better coordinated.
Teachers as early as preschool engage in behaviors that
shape the behaviors of boys and girls in different ways,
more often asking girls to be quiet or to speak softly.
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Long-term shifts in social identities develop over time
The expression of social identities can fluctuate considerably.
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The Notion of Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity
Within sociology, the terms race, ethnicity, minority,
and dominant group all have very specific and
different meanings.
Ethnicity has been best defined within Sociology,
But it has been a debated topic
There is no single definition or theory of how ethnic
groups are formed.
Overall, an ethnic group or ethnicity has been defined
in numerous ways.
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MERGER (2003) IDENTIFIED FIVE BASIC ASPECTS.
1. Unique Cultural Traits: Ethnic groups are subculture maintaining certain
behavioral characteristics that to some extent set them off from society‘s
mainstream culture.
2. Sense of community: display awareness of close associations.
exists a we‖-feeling among members.
sense of oneness derived from understanding of shared ancestor.
3. Ethnocentrism: is the tendency to judge other groups by the standards and values
of one’s own group.
The “we” feeling of ethnic groups produces a view of one’s own group
as superior to others.
In group become “correct” and “natural,”
Out - groups are seen as “odd,” “immoral,” or “unnatural. inferior or deficient
Such inclination is a universal practice.
In multiethnic societies, such feelings of group superiority become a basis for group
solidarity and fosters cohesiveness within one group, but also a basis of conflict
between different groups and deadly ethnic divisions
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4) Ascribed Membership:
Ethnic group membership is ordinarily ascribed and acquired at birth
Ethnicity Vs Race
Ethnicity is linked in a dichotic relationship with race.
Racial stratification is associated with birth-ascribed status based on physical and
cultural characteristics defined by outside groups.
Ethnicity is also ascribed at birth, but the ethnic group normally defines its
cultural characteristics itself.
Racial categorizations are normally mixed with inaccuracies and stereotypes,
Ethnic classification is normally more accurate of a cultural group because it is
defined by the group itself.
Ethnic classifications used by outside groups to stereotype an ethnic community in
ways that are often oversimplified
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Pluralism
a condition whereby people of all ethnicities and
races remain distinct but have social equality.
Ideally, countries strive for pluralism,
As an example, the United States is exceptionally
diverse, with people representing groups from all
over the globe, but lacking in true pluralism.
the former Soviet Union with its more than 100
ethnic groups, some having more than a million
members.
108
Two views of ethnic groups
1. an objective unit that can be identified by people‘s
distinctive cultural traits and
2. ethnic group is merely a product of people‘s thinking
of and proclaiming it as ethnic group.
Most sociologists defined ethnic group both as objective and
subjective units.
There are some fixed features such as territories, cultural
features and common ancestors (objective) and these ethnic
boundaries are subjected to change (flexible).
In multiethnic societies
ethnic boundaries are not rigid
there is much marriage across ethnic lines
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the voluntary nature of ethnicity becomes more salient.
PERSPECTIVES ON THE FORMATION OF ETHNIC GROUPS/IDENTITIES
Primordial theory
Assume that ethnicity is an ascribed identity-inherited from ones
ancestor.
It is deeply rooted to bloodline
110
The constructionist school
Ethnicity is a socially constructed identity- created rather than
ascribed.
Therefore, ethnic boundaries are flexible and changeable.
111
An integrated approach:
Either of the theories listed above do not explain ethnicity
alone rather in integration.
Proposition 1. Ethnicity is partly ascribed- ancestor,
kinship, cultural and emotional ties developed at early
stage are important .
Proposition 2. Ethnicity to some extent is socially
constructed by society and individuals.
Proposition 3. Costs and benefit related to an ethnic group
is also important to some extent in ethnic identification.
Proposition 4. Ethnic boundaries are relatively stable but
they can change from time to time
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Why might Ethnic Identity be dysfunctional
Primordial ethnic loyalties may overwhelm national purpose;
Ethnic dominance may permanently bias public policy in favour of the
dominant group
Minority groups may lose out
May operate through democratic mechanisms or various types of
dictatorships
May subvert democratic mechanisms with coup d’etats etc in order to
maintain dominance when challenged
More extreme actions of domination may occur
“Redistribution” in favour of the dominant group may be at the
expense of regional and ethnic balance and economic growth
113
Does Ethnic Diversity Cause Civil Strife?
Recent or Current cases:
Nigeria: Ogoni and others seeking a greater share of the oil
wealth vs. Federal Government;
Somalia: clan/territorial and sub-clan divisions wreck havoc
Kenya: Luo-Kikuyu rivalry
Chad: rival groups vie for oil wealth
Collier’s conclusion:
Most conflicts have an ethnic dimension; but the real underlying
cause and motivation may be control of resource wealth and
“rents”
i.e. conflicts get patterned on ethnicity or religion, though
fundamental causes usually lie elsewhere
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Race
Race is one of the most misunderstood and misused concepts of the modern world.
It is not applied dispassionately by laypeople or even, to a great extent, by social
scientists.
Much of the confusion surrounding the idea of race stems from the fact that it has
both biological and social meanings.
Rather, it can arouse emotions such as hate, fear, anger, loyalty, pride, and prejudice.
It has also been used to justify some of the most appalling injustices and
mistreatments of humans by other humans.
The idea of race has a long history, extending as far back as ancient civilizations.
It is in the modern world, however—specifically, the last two centuries— that the
notion has taken on real significance and fundamentally affected human relations.
115
The Bases Of Racial Classification
The basis of racial classification is that a person from one genetic population can
interbreed with a person from any other population creates a difficulty in dealing with
the notion of race.
In answering the question, ―What are the characteristics that differentiate racial types?
Physical anthropologists distinguish major categories of human traits as either visible
anatomical features such as skin color, hair texture, and body and facial shape—or
genotypes—genetic specifications inherited from one‘s parents.
Races have traditionally been classified chiefly on the basis of the most easily
observable anatomical traits, like skin color; internal and blood traits have been de-
emphasized or disregarded.
Attempts to categorize humans have proved futile b/c differences among individuals
of the same group (or ―racial type) are greater than those found between groups.
116
Social construction of race
Most social and biological scientists today agree that the idea of race is not
meaningful in a biological sense, though this is hardly a settled issue.
Its importance for the study of intergroup relations, however, clearly lies in its social
meaning.
Race is socially constructed and that premise cannot be overemphasized.
People attach significance to the concept of race and consider it a real and important
division of humanity.
And, as long as people believe that differences in selected physical traits are
meaningful, they will act on those beliefs, thereby affecting their interrelations with
others.
If, for example, those classified as black are deemed inherently less intelligent than
those classified as white, people making this assumption will treat blacks
accordingly.
117
Employers thinking so will hesitate to place blacks in important
occupational positions; school administrators thinking so will
discourage blacks from pursuing difficult courses of study; white
parents thinking so will hesitate to send their children to schools
attended by blacks; and so on.
The creation of such categories and the beliefs attached to them
generate what sociologists have called the self-fulfilling prophecy.
This refers to a process in which the false definition of a situation
produces behavior that, in turn, makes real the originally falsely
defined situation.
The notion of black inferiority is reinforced, and continued
discriminatory treatment of this group is rationalized.
118
RACE is primarily, though not exclusively, a socially constructed category.
A race is a group that is treated as distinct in society based on certain characteristics.
It is often a source of differential and unfair treatment.
It is not the biological characteristics that define racial groups, but how groups have
been treated historically and socially.
Society assigns people to racial categories (White, Black, etc.) not because of
science or fact, but because of opinion and social experience.
Thus, how racial groups are defined is a social process (socially constructed).
The term race refers to groups of people who have differences and similarities
in biological traits deemed by society to be socially significant, meaning that people
treat other people differently because of them.
119
Although some scholars have attempted to establish dozens of racial groupings for
the peoples of the world, others have suggested three commonly known types of
race: mongoloid-Asians, Caucasians-Hindus, and Negroids-Africans.
Certainly, obvious physical differences—some of which are inherited—exist
between humans.
But how these variations form the basis for social prejudice and discrimination has
nothing to do with genetics but rather with a social phenomenon related to outward
appearances.
Racism, then, is prejudice based on socially significant physical features. A racist
believes that certain people are superior, or inferior, to others in light of racial
differences.
Racists approve of segregation, or the social and physical separation of classes of
people.
120
Racism
Racist thinking involves principles that lead naturally and inevitably
to the differential treatment of members of various ethnic groups.
In no society are valued resources distributed equally; in all cases,
some get more than others.
In multiethnic societies, ethnicity is used as an important basis for
determining the nature of that distribution.
Ethnic groups are ranked in a hierarchy, and their members are
rewarded accordingly, creating a system of ethnic inequality.
Groups at the top compound their power and maintain dominance over
those lower in the hierarchy. 121
Unit Seven: Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and Practices
7.1. Definition of concepts
7.1.1. Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS)
IKS is defined as technical insight of wisdom gained and developed by people in a
particular locality through years of careful observation and experimentation with
the phenomena around them.
IKS is not just a set of information that is in the minds of the people, which can be
simply taped and applied. It is accessible by recall and practice (Mangetane, 2001).
IKS is embodied in culture and is described as an integrated pattern of human
knowledge, beliefs and behavior.
It consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools,
techniques, artifacts, rituals, ceremonies, folklores and gender.
This culture is passed down from one generation to the next generation and
generally it provides a holistic view of how to use natural resources based on
traditional ethical perspectives (Atteh,1991).
In sum, IKS refers to “ a total of knowledge and practices, whether explicit or
implicit, used in the management of socioeconomic, ecological and spiritual facets
of life (Hoppers, 2005: 2), stored in the collective memory and communicated 122
orally among members of the community and to the future generations [through,
stories, myth, songs, etc].
7.1.2. Indigenous peoples, and Indigenous Knowledge
Indigenous peoples
125
In 1986, however, a working definition of Indigenous peoples was
offered by the UN Working Group on Indigenous Issues, developed
within the comprehensive Study by Martinez Cobo J. on the problem
of discrimination against indigenous populations.
According to this definition:Indigenous communities, peoples and
nations are those which, having a historical continuity with pre-
invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories,
consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now
prevailing on those territories, or parts of them.
They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are
determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations
their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their
continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural
patterns, social institutions and legal systems (MartinezCobo, 1982).
126
7.1.3. Special Features of Indigenous Knowledge
Ellen and Harris (1996) identified the following special features of indigenous
knowledge that distinguish it broadly from other knowledge. As to them IK is:
1. Local, in that it is rooted in a particular community and situated within broader
cultural traditions; it is a set of experiences generated by people living in those
communities. Separating the technical from the non-technical, the rational from
the non-rational could be problematic. Therefore, when transferred to other
places, there is a potential risk of dislocating IK.
2. Tacit knowledge and, therefore, not easily codifiable.
130
7.4. Preservation, Challenges and Limitations of IK
The future of IK, that reflects many generations of experience and problem
solving by thousands of indigenous people across the globe, is uncertain
(Warren, 2004).
The loss of IK would impoverish society because, just as the world needs
genetic diversity of species, it needs diversity of knowledge systems (Labelle,
1997).
The rapid change in the way of life of local communities has largely accounted
for the loss of IK.
Younger generations underestimate the utility of IK systems because of the
influence of modem technology and education (Ulluwishewa, 1999).
If IK is not recorded and preserved, it may be lost and remain inaccessible to
other indigenous systems as well as to development workers.
Development projects cannot offer sustainable solutions to local problems
without integrating local knowledge (Warren, 1991).
"Since IK is essential to development, it must be gathered, organized and
disseminated, just like Western knowledge''(Agrawal, 1995 in Amare, 2009).
131
As IK is the key to local-level development, ignoring people’s knowledge leads
possibly to failure.
Regarding the challenges and limitations of IK, Amare
(2009) states the following :
As with scientific knowledge, ( Amare, 2009), IK has the following
limitations and drawbacks :
IK is sometimes accepted uncritically because of naive notions that
whatever indigenous people do is naturally in harmony with the
environment.
Thrupp (1989) argues that we should reject “romanticized and
idealistic views of local knowledge and traditional societies”.
There is historical and contemporary evidence that indigenous
peoples have also committed environmental sins’ through over-
grazing, over-hunting, or over-cultivation of the land.
It is misleading to think of IK as always being ‘good’, ‘right or
‘sustainable’.
Sometimes the knowledge which local people rely on is wrong 132 or
even harmful.
Practices based on, for example, mistaken beliefs, faulty
experimentation, or inaccurate information can be
dangerous and may even be a barrier to improving the
wellbeing of indigenous people.
Doubleday (2003) pointed out that knowledge is power, so
individuals are not always willing to share knowledge
among themselves, or with outsiders.
Knowledge is a source of status and income (as is the case,
for example, with a herbalist) and is often jealously
guarded.
A related issue is that some indigenous peoples fear that
their IK will be misused, and lacking the power to prevent
such abuses, they choose to keep quiet. 133
7.5. The Erosion of Indigenous Knowledge Systems(IKS)
With rapid population growth—often due to in-migration or
government relocation schemes in the case of large development
projects, such as dams — standards of living may be compromised.
With poverty, opportunities for short-term gain are selected over
environmentally sound local practices.
The introduction of market-oriented agricultural and forestry practices
focused on mono-cropping is associated with losses in IK and IK
practices, through losses in biodiversity and cultural diversity.
In the short term, chemical inputs seem to reduce the need to tailor
varieties to difficult growing conditions, contributing to the demise of
local varieties.
With deforestation, certain medicinal plants become more difficult to
find (and the knowledge or culture associated with the plants also
declines). 134
More and more knowledge is being lost as a result of the disruption of
traditional channels of oral communication.
As IK is transmitted orally, it is vulnerable to rapid change
— especially when people are displaced or when young
people acquire values and lifestyles different from those of
their ancestors.
In sum, indigenous peoples often have much in common
with other neglected segments of societies, i.e. lack of
political representation and participation, economic
marginalization and poverty, lack of access to social
services and discrimination.
Despite their cultural differences, the diverse indigenous
peoples share common problems also related to the
protection of their rights.
135