THE SCIENCE OF ECOLOGY

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The original definition is from a German Zoologist Ernst
Haeckel (1860), who defined ecology as the study of the
relationship of organisms with their environment.
 The second definition, considers ecology to be the study
of the distribution and abundance of organisms
(Andrewartha and Birch 1954).
The third definition focuses ecology on the study of
ecosystems (Odum 1971).
 comes from Greek: oikos "house" or "living relations“ ,is
the scientific study of the distributions, abundance and
relations of organisms and their interactions with the
environment.
Ecology includes the study of plant and animal populations,
plant and animal communities and ecosystem.
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 SCOPE OF ECOLOGY
• Organism – the • Species – groups of
individual living thing similar individuals
that can breed

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• Population – a
distinct group of
individuals of the
same species that
live and interact in
the same geographic
area

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• Community – an
assemblage of different
populations that live
and interact with one
another in a given area
or a given time.
Interactions vary in
nature such as
competition,
predation, mutualism,
etc.
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 Ecology is the study of ecosystems or
biomes.
 An ecosystem includes all of the living
things (plants, animals and organisms) in a
given area, interacting with each other, and
also with their non-living environments
(weather, earth, sun, soil, climate,
atmosphere).
 Ecosystems are the foundations of the
biosphere and they determine the health of
the entire earth system
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Ecosystem connotes obligatory relationships, interdependence and causal
relationships between and among the different habitats and niches

• Habitat – place where communities live. It

provides organisms everything it needs to
survive such as food, water and shelter
• Healthy habitat hosts a variety of species.
• The healthier, the more niches.

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• Niche – Role or function of an organism within
an ecosystem/habitat

PRODUCERS CONSUMERS PREDATORS

Carnivores
Omnivores
Herbivores
Scavengers
Predators
Decomposers/
Detritivores
We are all part of the
Biosphere, the only ecosystem
which has a definite material
boundary, it is made up of all
the earth’s ecosystems.
 organisms found near earth’s
surface is part of the
atmosphere (air and
heat),hydrosphere
(water),lithosphere (solid earth
Biosphere – the ‘sphere of life’
• The totality of all the terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystem in the
whole world

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 COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
1. Abiotic Component (life Support System-chemical & physical
factors)
 inorganic substances(nitrogen, oxygen, carbon..
 organic cpds.(carbohydrates, proteins, humus..
 climate regime (rainfall, temp., wind etc.)
Latitude/distance from equator
 altitude/distance above sea level
 nature of soil & fire (terrestial ecosystem)
 amt. of suspended solid materials (aquatic ecosystem)
 chemical factors e.g. level of water & air in soil, level of plant
nutrient dissolved in soil and water,toxic substances in water &
soil, salinity of water, level of dissolved oxygen in water

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2. Biotic components classified as producers,consumers and
decomposers, classification is based on organism’s
nutritional habits;
 Producers-autotrophs (self-feeders) green plants etc. &
other organisms that manufacture organic cpds. Use as
sources of energy and nutrients; bacteria extracts food from
the envt. thru chemosynthesis;
 Consumers- feed on producers also called heterotrophs or
otgher feeders, others feed on dead matters called detritus;
 herbivores (plant eaters), carnivores (flesh eaters),
omnivores ( higher level consumers eats plants, herbivores
& carnivores)
 detrivores feed on dead organic matter, detritus feeders
and decomposers

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• Both biotic and abiotic are important
– Abiotic directly influences the behavior and
performance of the biotic as manifested in
two conditions
• Law of Tolerance – an organism can maintain its
ecological niche to the extent that it can tolerate a
range of physical and chemical factors present in
the area (e.g. Pest and diseases)
• Law of Limiting Factor – availability of certain
factors affect the existence and growth of an
organism in particular place (e.g. Too much/little
sunlight)

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 FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
A. Production Function
Oxygen
1. Photosynthesis-
Ecosystems perform Light energy
and regulate the
processes of material
and energy exchanges
necessary to sustain
Carbon dioxide
life on earth

Water

PHOTOSYNTHESIS 13
2. Food Chain
– The sequence of repeated eating and being eaten.
– Transfer of energy where one organism consumes
another, rarely more than four or five. Human is
top consumer.

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 Food Chain
Consumers3

Scavengers1
Consumers2

Scavengers2

Consumers1

Scavengers3

Producer
Decomposers

Inorganic Matter
3. Food Web
– Intricate and
interconnected
network of food
chains because
most organisms
have one or
more consumers

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 Consumption Function
1. Food Pyramid
– Energy diminishes as it
transfers from the
producer to the topmost
level consumer, usually
humans

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 Decomposition Function

degradation of organic structures.

Consumers TO Scavengers TO
Decomposers

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 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
• WATER CYCLE
– Through the sun’s energy and
earth’s gravity, water from lakes and
streams evaporates to form water
vapor;
– Plants give off water through
transpiration;
– Water vapor cools down to form
clouds through condensation;
– It comes down to earth in the form
of rain or dew.
– Through infiltration, some water
seeps into the soil.

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CHEMICAL AND NUTRIENT CYCLE
Nutrients in the soil
are absorbed by
plants, passed on
to animals,
returned to earth
through natural
waste

Nutrients in the soil Natural waste

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 ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
• Self-regulating – Ability to
maintain internal ecological
balance by harmonizing the
input-output processes that
occur within it.
– Carrying capacity – maximum
number of individuals of a
given species that a particular
habitat can support without
depleting its resources
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• To maintain ecological balance, the
following should be observed:
– Maximum sustainable yield – maximum limit of
production of an ecosystem that would still
allow the physical environment to recycle
nutrients to support succeeding production
cycles and sustain itself
– Waste assimilative capacity – ability of
ecosystem to take in and recycle waste products
– Natural enemies – ecosystem should maintain a
balance in the population of preys and predators

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• Self-perpetuating – reproductive capabilities
that allow species to continue their
existence
– If rate of loss/annihilation of these living
organisms becomes faster than their
reproduction rate, they will become extinct.

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 PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY

1. Nature knows best

– Nature has the ability to regulate, perpetuate, maintain its
balance and keep both living and non-living components
stable.
– When humans interrupt and alter these abilities,
imbalance happens and ecological backlash occurs.
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 Principles of Ecology

2. All life forms are important.

– All living organisms have the inherent right to exist.
– All have an important role that is evident in the food
chain.
– Diverse nature is the basis of ecological stability.
– Biodiversity supports human survival.
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 Principles of Ecology

3. Everything is connected to everything else.

– Each organism depends on other organisms to survive;
– If the chain of interconnectedness is broken and the
natural state of the environment is altered, everything
will fall apart.

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 Principles of Ecology

4. Everything changes.
– Seasons help produce new life forms, e.g.
caterpillars to butterflies, maggots to flies, different
flowers/fruits, crops, etc. to maintain balance in
nature
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 Principles of Ecology

5. Everything must go somewhere.

– Matter cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be
transformed.
– Nothing on earth ‘disappears.’
– Only the environment has the capacity to recycle natural
products.
– Biodegradeable wastes go back to soil as nutrients
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 Principles of Ecology

6. Ours is a finite earth.

– There are limits to whatever we do as nature can only do
so much (carrying capacity, maximum sustainable yield,
waste assimilative capacity);
– Everything we do beyond limitations would cause
environmental destruction.
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 Principles of Ecology

7. Humans are the stewards of nature.

– Merely borrowers of the Earth’s resources
– Have the responsibility to conserve and protect
nature, which is their source of sustenance and
existence.
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 3
PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY

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 What is BIODIVERSITY
• BIODIVERSITY
– Comes from two words
L. bios – all kinds of living things
Diversity – variety or differences
– The variety and extent of differences among living
things
– Includes millions of microorganisms, plants and
animals – from genes and species to the
ecosystems that they live in

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Levels of Biological Organization

Genetic Species Ecosystems

Diversity Diversity Diversity

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Ecosystems Diversity

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 Importance of Biodiversity

Economic Importance
Ecological Importance
Food Social and Cultural
Medicine Air and water Values
Fuel, timber, fiber and purification Foundation for IPs
other resources Climate stabilizer religious beliefs and
Recreational/ Drought, erosion and practices
aesthetic values flood control Touristic activities
Scientific research

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Location of Biodiversity
• EVERYWHERE!
– Forest interior
– Ocean depths
• Some, restricted geographic
habitats
• Not equally distributed, but
largest in the tropics or
places near the equator

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Species Diversity in the Philippines
• Mega-diverse country
– Home to more than 52,177 described flora and
fauna species, half of which is endemic
– All the described plant species represent 5% (or up
to 15,000 out of 287,000) of all species globally
described so far

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Species Diversity in the Philippines
• Mega-diverse country
– The described species of animals represent 3%
(38,000 out of 1.2 million) of globally described
species
– Only 1% of lower forms of organisms (bacteria,
unicellular algae) are described, out of the
extremely numerous number

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 Level of Endemism
Types %
Plants 45-60%
Arthropods 70%
Reptiles 66%
Amphibians 77%
Breeding land birds 49%
Terrestrial vertebrates 60%
Terrestrial mammals 67%
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 Trivia on Philippine Species Diversity

• The following can be found in the Philippines

– 34-40/74 mangroves in the world
– 16/51 species of seagrasses
– 5th in the world in mammalian endemicity -
204/5416 species of mammals
– 183 species of terrestrial mammals (120 are
endemic including Mindoro’s tamaraw)

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 Trivia on Philippine Species Diversity

• The following can be found in the Philippines

– 5th in world in bird species endemicity - 576/9,917
birds (176 are endemic, e.g. Philippine eagle,
Calayan Rail in Babuyan)
– 8th in the world reptilian species endemicity -
258++/8,163 reptiles (209 are endemic, Philippine
freshwater crocodile)
– 500++ spiders in the Philippines (300++ are
endemic)

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 Trivia on Philippine Species Diversity

• The following can be found in the Philippines

– 101++/5,743 of amphibians (78 are endemic, e.g.
smallest frog –Platymantis cagayanesis,in N.
Luzon)
– 2nd in the world in butterfly endemicity. 909
species of butterflies (352 are endemic)
– 462 species of corals (highest in the world, 50% of
the known species in the world, 12% are endemic)

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 Threats to Biodiversity in the Philippines

• Vanishing endemic species – threats to

extinction
– Natural extinction may due to
• Physical and biological changes in the environment like
natural calamities (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
typhoons), or resulting from natural processes like
predation and competition
• Natural geographic changes ( sinking of an island, soil
erosion)

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 Threats to Biodiversity in the Philippines

• Vanishing endemic species . . .

– Human induced extinction - disturbances caused
by human activities
• Habitat loss and degradation or encroachment on
habitats (kaingin, logging, real estate development,
conversion of mangrove areas into fisponds)
• Displacement from habitat prevent breeding

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 Threats to Biodiversity in the Philippines

• Vanishing endemic species . . .

– Human induced extinction - disturbances caused
by human activities
• Direct exploitation (over-use of timber, charcoal making,
over-harvesting of fisheries products, mining, hunting
and wildlife trade)

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 Threats to Biodiversity in the Philippines

• Vanishing endemic species . . .

– Human induced extinction - disturbances caused
by human activities
• Introduction of exotic/invasive species
• Pollution
• Global warming and climate change
• Use of illegal fishing methods

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 Threats to Forest Ecosystems
• Logging (legal and illegal)
• Conversion of forest lands into agricultural
plantation and human settlements
• Fuel wood gathering
• Exploitation of non-wood products including
wildlife
• Invasion of alien species

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 Threats to Grassland Ecosystems
• Fire
• Land conversion
• Invasion of alien species (rodents and
weeds)
• Overgrazing
• Soil erosion

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Threats to Agricultural Ecosystems
• Soil erosion
• Chemical pollution (excessive use of
fertilizers and other chemical inputs)
• Occurrence of pests

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 Threats to Urban Ecosystems

• Pollution
• Overexploitation of resources

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 Threats to Freshwater Ecosystems

• Pollution/chemical contamination from domestic,

municipal, industrial and agricultural sources
• Over-exploitation of aquatic resources
• Extensive aquaculture development
• Sedimentation from upstream sources
• Human settlements

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 Threats to Mangrove Ecosystems

• Conversion to fishponds/saltbeds
• Deforestation
• Pollution
• Industrial expansion and development
• Human settlements
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 Threats to Seagrass Ecosystems
• Siltation/sedimentation
• Pollution
• Habitat destruction due to the development
of coastal areas for tourism, human
settlements and aquaculture

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Threats to Coral Reef Ecosystems
• Siltation/sedimentation/run-offs
• Over-fishing
• Use of destructive fishing methods
(dynamite, cyanide, poisoning, muro ami
• Pollution
• Harvesting of corals
• Unregulated coastal area development

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Threats to Soft Bottom Ecosystem

• Pollution
• Climate change

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Underlying Causes of the Loss of Philippine
Biodiversity

• Overpopulation
• Poverty
• Apathy
• Conflicting laws and policies
• Lack of education resulting in
low levels of knowledge and
awareness

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 Impact of Biodiversity Loss
• The shrinking forest cover of the Philippines is
leaving many wildlife species homeless;
• Deforestation has caused:
– Water shortage
– Food shortage
– Health hazard
– Economic disadvantage
– Global warming

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 4
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION:
STRATEGIES AND APPROACHES

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A. Individual Level
• Solid waste management
• Tree planting
• Practice of organic agriculture (crops & animal
production)
• Agroforestry farming system practices
• Develop local policies in conserving /managing
biodiversity
• Developing biodiversity corridors at school,
barangay and farm levels
• Establish live herbarium species
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 Individual Level Biodiversity Conservation
Initiatives
• Simplify lifestyle.
– Lesser consumption would mean
lesser pressure on the
environment
– Buy sustainable seafood

• Practice the three R’s.

– Reduce, reuse, recycle to lessen
garbage production
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 Individual Level Biodiversity Conservation
Initiatives
• Be sensitive when relating to
your natural surroundings.
– In your recreational activity, don’t
step on corals;
– Design structures around its
natural environment;
– Let buildings merge with the trees.

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 Individual Level Biodiversity Conservation
Initiatives
• Stay away from products made
from animals, especially
endangered species.
– Don’t buy ‘bad’ souvenirs
• Use environment friendly materials.
– Save our forests by buying "good"
wood
– Reduce your paper consumption and
use recycled paper

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 Community Led Biodiversity Conservation
Initiatives
• Community-based natural resources
management initiatives
– Tree planting/mangrove planting
activities
– Observance of environment-related
celebrations (Earth Day, Coastal Clean-
Up, Ocean Month)
– Conduct of environment education and
other awareness raising activities on
biodiversity conservation
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 Community Led Biodiversity Conservation
Initiatives
• Help in environmental law enforcement.
• Lobby for the passing of ordinances on
marine/forest protection.
• Establish community woodlots for tree
plantation.
• Advocate the use of alternative non-
destructive fishing methods.

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 Government Led Biodiversity Conservation
Initiatives
• Formulation of policies/ordinances
that support biodiversity
conservation
• Dutiful implementation of laws
and policies that protect the
environment
• Formation and deputation of law
enforcement groups (Bantay
Dagat, Bantay Gubat,

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 NGO Led Biodiversity
Conservation Initiatives
• Community Based Resource
Management Programs
• Nationwide Alliance of Marine
Protected Areas
• Environmental research
• Research on alternative technology
and indigenous knowledge
• Advocacy, networking, education,
support mobilization and training
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 Philippine Biodiversity Laws
• RA 7586, The National Integrated Protected
Areas System (NIPAS) Act
– To develop a comprehensive protected areas
system and integrate the participating of local
communities in protected areas management and
decision-making

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 Philippine Biodiversity Laws
• RA 8550, The Philippine Fisheries Code of
1998
– Integrates all laws of fisheries and aquatic
resources of the country
– Aims to promote sustainable development of the
country’s fishery resources based on ecological
limits

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 Philippine Biodiversity Laws
• RA 9147, The Wildlife Resources Conservation and
Protection Act
– Aims to protect our country’s fauna from illicit trade,
abuse and destruction, through
• Conserving and protecting wildlife species and their habitats
• Regulating the collection and trade of wildlife
• Pursuing, with due regard to the national interest, the
Philippine commitment to international conventions,
protection of wild life and their habitats,
• Initiating or supporting scientific studies on the conservation
of biological diversity

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 Philippine Biodiversity Laws
• RA 8371, The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act
(IPRA)
– Seeks to recognize, promote and protect the rights
of the IPs
• Right to Ancestral domain and lands
• Right to self governance and empowerment
• Social justice and human rights
• Right to cultural integrity

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 Philippine Biodiversity Laws
• RA 9072, The National Caves and Cave
Resources Management and Protection Act
– Conserves, protects and manages caves and cave
resources as part of the country’s natural wealth
– Strengthens the cooperation and exchange of
information between government authorities and
people who utilize caves and cave resources for
scientific, educational, recreational, tourism and
other purposes

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 Philippine Biodiversity Laws
• Species-specific laws that support biodiversity
conservation
– Philippine Eagle Act
– Conservation of Marine Turtles and Soft-shelled
(freshwater) Turtles
– Protection of Whale Sharks and Manta Rays
– Tree Planting Decree of 1976 (PD 953)
– Traditional and Alternative Medicine Act of 1997 (RA
8423)
– Animal Welfare Act of 1998 (RA 8485)
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 Philippine Biodiversity Laws
• Other laws that affect biodiversity conservation
– Mining Act of 1995 (RA 7942)
– Clean Air Act of 1999 (RA 8749)
– Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003)
– Proclamation No. 2146 (1981), a law defining
environmentally critical areas and environmentally critical
projects
– Clean Water Act of 2004
– Climate Change Act of 2009 (RA 9729)
– Organic Agriculture Act of 2010 (RA 10068)

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 International Conventions Focusing on
Biodiversity Issues
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
– Conservation of biological diversity
– Sustainable use of its components
– Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising
from commercial and other utilization of genetic
resources

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 International Conventions Focusing on
Biodiversity Issues
• Convention on Conservation of Migratory
Species (CMS)
– Bonn Convention
– Conservation of terrestrial, marine and avian
migratory species throughout their range, and
their habitats

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 International Conventions Focusing on
Biodiversity Issues
• Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)
– Ensures that international trade in specimens of
wild animals and plants does not threaten their
survival
– Accords varying degrees of protection to more
than 30,000 plant and animal species

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 International Conventions Focusing on
Biodiversity Issues
• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
– Provides the framework for national action and
internal cooperation for the conservation and wise
use of wetlands and their resources

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 International Conventions Focusing on
Biodiversity Issues
• World Heritage Convention (WHC)
– Identifies and conserves the world’s cultural and
natural heritage, by drawing up a list of sites
whose outstanding values should be preserved for
all humanity and to ensure their protection
through a closer cooperation among nations.

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 International Conventions Focusing on
Biodiversity Issues
• Results of Conventions
– Actions at the national, regional and international
level in order to reach shared goals of
conservation and sustainable use
– Complementary approaches developed
• Species and/or ecosystem based
• Operational tools (programs of work, trade permits and
certificates, regional agreements, site listings, funds)

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 5
CALL TO ACTION

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 Activity 6
• Caring for the Environment

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 Summing Up: Preparing for
Action
• Referring to Workshop 4, fill up the Matrix
that summarize
Priority
Issues/
Threats/ Local Concerns to
Local Status of Pressures Conservation be Addressed
Biodiversity Faced by BD Efforts in the Future Vision

Current Causes Current Add Desired state

situation initiatives recommen
dations for
actions

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 Action Plan Matrix
Person
Resource Respon
Output/s Activities Indicators Target Reqmts sible Timeframe

Deliverable Actions to Measure- How many? Materials Who will be When

generate ment (QQT) To what Supplies involved? (within 1
the output extent? Equipment year)
Budget
e.g.
e.g. e.g. No. of 1 trng/sem
Training on Conduct trainings ester
Environ- TNA conducted
mental Design the No. of 35/trng.
Awareness training partici
conducted pants
trained
% change in At least
learning 50%
increment

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 Panunumpa sa Kalikasan

Kami ay nangangako na ipagtatanggol namin

ang karapatan ng mga susunod na salinlahi
para sa maayos, malinis, at maaliwalas na
kapaligiran na siyang magsisilbing kanlungan
ng aming mga adhikain. Magsusumikap din
kami na makamit ang aming pinapangarap na
magandang bukas.

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 Panunumpa sa Kalikasan

Itinalaga rin namin ang aming mga sarili na

magsilbing gabay sa mga susunod na salinlahi.
Kami ay magiging patnubay tungo sa
pagsasagawa ng mga hakbangin na magbibigay
galang sa kapaligiran at kalikasan na kaloob sa
amin upang linangin at pagyamanin sa abot ng
aming kakayahan sa pamamagitan ng
pagtutulungan at pagkakaisa.

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86
 CREDITS
Haribon Foundation. 2006. Philippine Biodiversity for Beginners.
Quezon City: Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of
Natural Resources, Inc., Philippines.
_________. 2006. Philippine Biodiversity Conservation: A
Trainer’s Manual. Quezon City: Haribon Foundation for the
Conservation of the Natural Resources, Inc.

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