Research Methods

(GeFs-512)
By Deribe Kaske
 Objectives
This course enables students to:
• gain clear understanding on basic concepts of research
methods and methodology
• developing a sound proposal
• writing of research reports based on the analysis and
findings of researches in agricultural and rural
development studies.
• impart clarity on the skills required to carry out
research projects and seminar presentations
successfully.
 Learning Outcomes:
After completion of the course the students will be able to:
• Define what a research means and familiar with the types of research 
• Explain the needs for a scientific research,
• identify and prioritize research needs or problems
• prepare project proposal,
• analyze different socio-economic data and write up scientific report,
• Develop critical thinking in identifying the most important data sources for a
particular use;
• Explain the different sampling and data collection techniques and apply in
practice
• Make use of appropriate in-text citations and bibliography
• Acquire the necessary skills to formulate research problems in rural
development and agricultural extension
UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Upon completion of Unit I, students will be able to

• Understand what research means, why
undertake research and key characteristics of
research
• Explain the relationships between research and
science
• Introduce to some key terms and concepts
• Identify the different research philosophies,
approaches and types
• Differentiate different types of research
 1.1 Introduction
• People are interpretative. In our interaction
with the world, we seek to represent
internally to ourselves what we have
experienced externally.
• We generally assume that the universe is an
orderly, reasonable, meaningful place, and
that if we look, we will be able to discern that
order.
 Introduction…
• However, we are confronted with problematic
experiences in the world.
• At such times, we we seek to discover the
cause or a reasonable explanation for the
problematic experiences. i.e. we research the
subject to ‘research’ its meaning.
 1.2 Definition of Research
• We can define RESEARCH in different ways:
• It refer to the systematic method consisting of
– articulate the problem,
– formulating hypothesis,
– collecting facts or data,
– analyzing the facts and
– reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
• solution(s) towards the concerned problem or
• in certain generalizations or
• some theoretical formulation.
 Definition of research…
• RESEARCH is a pursuit /search/detection of truth with the
help of
– study,
– observation,
– comparison and
– experiment.
• Alternatively RESEARCH can be considered as a search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem.
• Generally, RESEARCH is a systematic inquiry designed to
further our knowledge and understanding of a subject.
 Definition of research…
• A systematic and logical study of an issue or
problem through scientific method.
• Research involves four main stages:
1. planning
2. data collection
3. analysis
4. interpretation of data.
 1.3 Significance of conducting research

• “Learning to research will promote careful,

critical and systematic thinking.
• Learning to write, however, promotes
effective communication of the ideas and
insights gained in the research.”
 Significance…
• Research is a way of knowing.
• When we want to know something and there is
no one who knows about it or the people
disagree or when we are not ready to accept
the answer of somebody, then we do research.
• We also conduct research when the existing
literature on a subject does not answer being
given.
 Significance…
• Individuals, groups and corporations do research
– when they want answers to questions for which the
authorities have no answers or
– where there is inconsistency in the answers given.
•  Generally, research is done to settle disputes
about the nature and operation of some aspect
of the universe we live in.
• Research is a disciplined way of coming to know
something about our world or ourselves.
 Objectives or Purpose of Research

• Research generates new knowledge

• Research helps finding solutions to problems.
• Research brings to light information that might
never be discovered fully during the ordinary
course of life.
• Research establishes generalization, general laws
and theories in various fields, e.g. law of
gravitation.
• Research verifies and tests existing facts in order to
improve our understanding.
 1.4 Research, scientific method and theory

• Research and scientific method are closely related.

• Research as we have already stated, can be termed
as an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for and
the consequences of any set of circumstances.
• On the other hand, the philosophy common to all
research methods and techniques, although they
may vary considerably from one science to another,
is usually given the name’ scientific method’.
• Scientific method is the pursuit for truth as
determined by logical considerations.
• The Ideal of science is to achieve a systematic
interrelation of facts.
• So scientific method attempts to achieve this
ideal by experimentation, observation, and
logical argument from accepted postulates and
a combination of these three in varying
proportions.
• Research and theory are very closely
interrelated in two ways:
•  a) Theory guides research by providing
guidelines and basic assumptions.
• b) Research provides the way of establishing,
formulating, strengthening and revising
theory.
• Theory is a supposition or system of ideas
explaining something, especially based on
general principles independent of the particular
thing to be explained.
• A theory is an idea of how things relate to each
other.
•   Theory construction is based on a systematic
approach employing clear, explicit and formal
procedures in all aspects of the research process
1.5 Reasoning: Basis for discovering knowledge

• The sole aim of all research is to discover

knowledge or facts.
• In fact, there are two ways of seeking the
unknown in men’s long history.
• These are deductive logic and inductive logic.
 Reasoning
• a) Deductive logic
•  Deductive logic relies up on logical reasoning
and begins with a major premise.
• Essentially it looks for self-evident and
universally accepted truth.
•  Example: Human being is mortal.
– David is human being.
– Therefore, David is mortal.
 Deductive Approach

Data
Collection

Hypothesis confirmed or refuted

In this approach the research process is cyclical, i.e.

results feedback into the system and inform future
research
Introduction to Research - Lecture Notes 20
 Reasoning
• b) Inductive reasoning:
•  It is commonly called scientific method.
• It does not begin with a preconceived
conclusion or a major premise, but with an
observation, i.e. by looking at phenomena.
• It is still the most valid and commonly used
method for problem solving and the
resolution of unanswered questions.
 Reasoning
• Usually the following steps are followed in scientific
method:
–  Identify the problem that defines the goal of the quest.
– Gathering data with the hope of resolving the problem
– Positing a tentative hypothesis both as a logical means of
locating the data and as an aid to resolving the problem.
– Empirically testing the hypothesis and interpreting the
data.
•  Example: David is mortal.
– All human beings are mortal.
Inductive
 Reasoning
• The inductive approach is chosen because
may be there is no established theory on
which to base and, the research is trying to
develop one
• Because of this the approach is sometimes
called exploratory research
Reasoning
 1.6. Characteristics of research
• 1.6.1 Research begins with a question in the mind of the
researcher.
• 1.6.2 Research demands the identification of a problem,
stated in clear, unambiguous terms.
• 1.6.3 Research requires a plan
• 1.6.4 Research deals with the main problem through
appropriate sub-problems
• 1.6.5 Research seeks direction through appropriate hypothesis
based up on obvious assumptions.
• 1.6.6 Research deals with facts and their meaning
• 1.6.7 Research is circular.
 Characteristics…
• 1.6.1 Research begins with a question in the mind of
the researcher.
•  Human being is a curious (questioning).
• Every where we look, we see phenomena which
arouse our curiosity, which cause us to wonder, to
speculate, to ask questions.
• By asking questions we strike the first spark of an
inquisitive attitude which is a prerequisite for research.
• An inquisitive mind is the beginning of research.
 Characteristics…
• 1.6.2 Research demands the identification of a
problem, stated in clear, unambiguous terms.
•  Successful research begins with a clear, simple
statement of the problem that the researcher
seeks to resolve.
• We must clearly outline what we are
attempting to research (the goal of the
research)
 Characteristics…
• 1.6.3 Research requires a plan
•  Research is not aimless, undirected, in the
hope that you may ‘come across’ the solution
to your problem.
• Research demands a definite aggressive plan.
i.e. your activity must have direction as a
result of conscious planning and design
 Characteristics…
• 1.6.4 Research deals with the main problem
through appropriate sub-problems.
•  It is important to subsume the lesser problems,
which are collectively component parts of the
whole.
•  It is expected, therefore, to divide the main
problem into sub-problems all of which, when
resolved, will result in the solution of the main
research problem.
 Characteristics…
• 1.6.5 Research seeks direction through appropriate
hypothesis based up on obvious assumptions.
• After the problem and the attendant sub-problems
are defined, each of the sub-problems is then viewed
thorough logical construct called a hypothesis.
•  A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable
guess, which may give direction to your thinking and
then aid in resolving it.
• That is, it gives direction in search of the facts.
 Characteristics…
• 1.6.6 Research deals with facts and their meaning
•  Often we’ve posited hypotheses, which suggest the
direction in which the facts may be discovered.
• The next step is to collect whatever facts seem to be
appropriate to the problem and to organize them into
meaningful aggregates, so that they can be interpreted.
• The significance of the data depends upon the way in
which the facts are regarded as useful.
• Different researchers frequently drive different
meanings from the same set of data.
 Characteristics…
• 1.6.7 Research is circular.
• Problem situation (central problem),
• Sub-problems (research universe)
• facts pertinent to the solution of the problem
• Construction of tentative hypothesis
• Collected facts organized,
Analyzed,interpreted
• Solution of the problem
 Characteristics of Research
• Research is a systematic and critical investigation
into a phenomenon/problem
• Research is a purposeful investigation
• Research uses scientific methods
• Research is objective and logical
• The purpose of research is not to arrive at an
answer which is personally pleasing, but rather
one which will stand up the test of criticism.
 1.7 Research Philosophies
• There are two main research philosophies (or
positions) – positivist and phenomenological.
• Although there can be overlap between the
two , both positions may be identifiable in any
research project.
1. POSITIVISTIC (can also be referred to
‘Quantitative’, ‘Objectivist’, ‘Scientific’,
‘Experimentalist’ or ‘Traditionalist’)
 Philosophies
Characteristics
• An approach to research that seeks out the facts or causes
of any social phenomena in a systematic way.
• Belief that the study of social behaviour should be
conducted in the same way as studies conducted in the
natural sciences
• Seek to identify, measure and evaluate any phenomena
and to provide rational explanation for the goal of
establishing causal links and relationships between the
different elements (or variables) of the subject and relate
them to a particular theory or practice.
 Philosophies…
2. PHENOMENOLOGICAL
can also be referred to as ‘Qualitative’, ‘Subjectivist’, ‘Humanistic’ or
‘Interpretative’
Characteristics
• It approaches research from the perspective that human behaviour
is not as easily measured as phenomena in the natural sciences.
• Human motivation is shaped by factors that are not always
observable, e.g. inner thought processes, so that it can become
hard to generalize on observation alone.
• Furthermore, people place their own meanings on events;
meanings that do not always coincide with the way others have
interpreted them.
 Philosophies…
• This perspective assumes that people will often
influence events and act in unpredictable ways that
upset any constructed rules or identifiable norms
• Phenomenological approaches are particularly
concerned with understanding behaviour from the
participants’ own subjective frames of reference.
• Research methods are chosen from the perspectives
of the people who are the subject of the research.
 Philosophies…
Positivistic Phenomenological
•Surveys •Case Studies
•Experimental Studies •Action Research
•Longitudinal Studies •Ethnography
•Cross-sectional Studies (participant
•observation)
•Participative Enquiry
•Feminist perspectives
•Grounded Theory
 1.8 Research methods and research
methodology
• Research methods may be understood as all those
methods/ techniques that are used for conducting research.
• For example, methods used in collection of data, methods
used in statistical analysis, etc.
•  Research methodology is a way to systematically solve a
research problem.
• It is a science of studying how a research is done.
• In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted
by a researcher in studying his research problem along with
the logic behind them.
 1.9 Classification of research
• 1.9.1 Descriptive versus Analytical
• 1.9.2 Applied versus Fundamental
• 1.9.3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative
• 1.9.4 Conceptual versus Empirical
• 1.9.5 Some other classifications of research
 Classification…
• 1.9.1 Descriptive versus Analytical
•  Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
inquires of different kinds.
• The major purpose is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present.
•  The methods utilized are survey.
– For example, frequency of shopping, preference of people.
• Analytical research: The researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.
 Classification…
• 1.9.2 Applied versus Fundamental
•  Applied (or action) research aims at finding a solution
for immediate problem facing a society or an industry,
etc. e.g. Agriculture
• It is not done to gain knowledge for its own sake but to
solve specific and practical problems that are faced.
• It usually involves adaptation, conversion, or processing
of knowledge to develop useful innovation or
technology that is derived from basic or fundamental
research  
 Classification…
• Fundamental (basic or pure) research
• is concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of
a theory.
• a research activity pursued with the aim of discovering or
creating new knowledge regardless of its immediate
application. I
• Its primary purpose is to advance the frontiers of knowledge
and is conducted without practical end in mind.
• It is mainly driven by the researcher’s curiosity or interest. The
commitment and devotion of the researcher is important.
• Basic research is often conducted in universities than in
research systems
 Classification…
• 1.9.3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative
•  Quantitative research:
• is concerned with the measurement of amount or
quantity.
• It is applied to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity.
•  assigns numbers to the phenomena.
• It is a description of phenomena by using some
mathematical or statistical manipulation
 Classification…
• Qualitative research
• is concerned with qualitative phenomena.
– For example, reasons for human behavior, attitude
or opinion research.
• produces narratives or textual
description of phenomena under study.
• It is a description of phenomena by using
words
 Quantitative vs qualitative research
Items Quantitative research Qualitative research

Type of data Phenomena described Phenomena described in a

numerically narrative way

analysis Descriptive and inferential Identification of major items

statistics

Scope inquiry Specific question or Broad thematic concerns

hypothesis

advantage Large sample, statistical Rich, in-depth narrative

validity, accurately reflects description of sample
the population

disadvantage Superficial understanding of Small sample, not

participants’ thoughts and generalizable to the
feelings population at large
Introduction to Research - Lecture Notes 47
 Classification…
• 1.9.4 Conceptual versus Empirical
•  Conceptual research
• is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
• It is used to develop new concepts or to interpret
existing ones.
•  Empirical research
• is data based research, coming up with
conclusions, which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment.
 Classification…
• 1.9.5 Some other classifications of research
•  These will be variations of one or more of the above.
•  We can have field setting research or laboratory research or
simulation research depending upon the environment in
which it is to be carried out.
•  Clinical or diagnostic research which follow case study
methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal
relations. They use very small samples.
•  Exploratory or formalized: The objective of exploratory
research is to test hypothesis. Formalized has substantial
structure and specific hypothesis to be tested.