NON-METALS

CSEC CHEMISTRY
 HYDROGEN

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

 Colourless, odourless gas  Burns in oxygen with a purple flame:
 Insoluble in water 2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)
 Less dense than air  Reacts with highly reactive metals, forming the hydride:
 Neutral in pH 2Na(s) + H2(g)  2NaH(s)
 Explosive gas  Reduces metals from lead and below in the reactivity series:
PbO(s) + H2(g)  Pb(s) + H2O(l)
 Reducing agent
 CHLORINE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 Greenish yellow gas  Does not react with oxygen
 More dense than air  Reacts with metals to form chlorides:
 Irritating smell 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)  2NaCl(s)
 Bleach  Chlorine is an oxidizing agent
 Turns blue litmus red and bleaches it
 High electronegativity
OXYGEN
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 Colourless and odourless gas  Reacts with metals to produce the metal
oxides (characteristic flames)
 Makes up 21% of atmosphere
 2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)
 Supports combustion
 Neutral pH
 Oxidising agent
 Slightly denser than air

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CARBON
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Solid at room temperature
 Exists in many allotropic forms, 3 are –
diamond, graphite, buckminsterfullerene
 Graphite conducts electricity CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 Very high melting point, hard structures
 Reacts with oxygen to form the dioxide:
 Insoluble in water
 C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)
 Diamond is shiny
 If insufficient oxygen is present it will
form the monoxide
 2C(s) + O2(g)  2CO(g)
 Reducing agent (reduces metal oxides to
get pure metals, eg Fe)
SULPHUR
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Yellow solid
 Exists in several allotropic forms eg
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
brimstone  Reacts with oxygen to form the dioxide:
 Odourless, Tasteless S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
 Insoluble in water  Further reaction with oxygen forms the
trioxide
 Compounds of sulphur are acidic and
will turn blue litmus red 2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g)
 Reacts with all metals except Au and Pt
to form sulphides
Mg(s) + S(s)  MgS(s)
 Reducing agent

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NITROGEN
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Colourless, odourless gas
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 Neutral pH
 Nitrogen is an inert gas
 Majority of atmosphere
 Under normal conditions, no reaction
 Slightly less dense than air with oxygen, but under high
temperatures it forms the monoxide:
 N2(g) + O2(g)  2NO(g)
 At high temperatures, it reacts with
highly reactive metals to form the
nitrides:
 6Na(s) + N2(g)  2Na3N(s)

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is licensed under CC BY-SA
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF GASES
LAB PREP OF OXYGEN
 Hydrogen peroxide is dropped onto a
manganese(IV) oxide catalyst
 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form
water and oxygen:
 2H2O2(aq)  2H2O(l) + O2(g)
 Oxygen is collected by upward
displacement of water
 The gas can be dried by bubbling through
sulphuric acid
LAB PREP OF CARBON DIOXIDE
 An acid like HCl is dropped into a flask
containing calcium carbonate
 Carbon dioxide is collected through upward
displacement of water
 The gas is dried by bubbling through
concentrated sulphuric acid
LAB PREP OF AMMONIA

 Ammonium chloride and calcium

hydroxide are placed in a flask
 On warming, ammonia gas is produced
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s)  2NH3(g)
+ CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l)
 Ammonia gas is collected by upward
displacement
 The gas is dried by bubbling through
calcium oxide
USES OF GASES
 USES OF OXYGEN
 Fuel for rockets and shuttles
 In breathing apparatus in hospitals/ scuba tanks
 Needed for respiration
 As oxidizing agent
 Sterilising agent
 Welding torches
 Water and sewage treatment plants to precipitate metal ions
USES OF CARBON DIOXIDE

 Refrigerant
 Fire extinguishers
 Inflating life rafts and life jackets
 Carbonated beverages
 Making rubber and plastics
 Stunning animals before slaughtering
 Promoting growth of plants in greenhouses
USES OF AMMONIA
 Fertiliser – ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate
 Refrigerant gas
 Manufacture of plastics, dyes, explosives, pesticides etc
 Household cleaner

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under CC BY-SA
USES OF CARBON

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under CC BY-SA
 Diamond is used in jewelry, drill bits for oil
 Graphite is used in pencils, electrodes for electrolysis, lining of industrial furnaces
 Coal is a fuel
 Coke is used in smelting of metals
 Activated charcoal is used in purification and filtration

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 USES OF SULPHUR

 Vulcanisation of rubber
 Fungicide
 Making of gunpowder
 To manufacture sulphuric acid (car batteries, dyes, paints etc)

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USES OF PHOSPHORUS

 Ammonium phosphate – fertilizer

 Red phosphorus – in matches, pyrotechnics
 Manufacture of steel
USES OF CHLORINE

 Bleaches
 Manufacture of insecticides (DDT)
 Manufacture of antiseptics (Dettol)
 In degreasing agents and dry-cleaning solvents
 In aerosol propellants (CFCs)

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Author is licensed under
CC BY-SA
USES OF NITROGEN

 Refrigerant
 In food packaging
 Manufacture of ammonia
 Manufacture of fertilisers and nitric acid
 Manufacture of explosives and dyes
 Inflation of tyres

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licensed under CC BY-SA
USES OF SILICON

 Manufacture of silicon chips for computers

 In jewellery (quartz)
 Manufacture of glass
 Manufacture of ceramics

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HARMFUL EFFECTS OF NON-METALS
ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Pollution is the process
which leads to harmful
substances or effects on
the environment.
Substances which can
cause pollution are
called pollutants.
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Gases that lead to air pollution
- SO2, CO, H2S, NO, NO2, CO2, CFCs
 SULPHUR DIOXIDE

 Produced from the combustion of fossil fuels,

volcanic eruptions
 Sulphur dioxide from the air can dissolve in
precipitation (like rain) to form sulphurous acid:
 SO2(g) + H2O(l)  H2SO3(aq)
 This makes the rain more acidic – ACID RAIN

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CARBON MONOXIDE

 Formed from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels

 Combines with haemoglobin in the blood forming carboxyhaemoglobin.
 This prevents haemoglobin from taking up oxygen, so the body’s cells become deprived of
oxygen.
 Carbon monoxide poisoning can lead to death

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CC BY
 HYDROGEN
SULPHIDE
 Formed from the decomposition of plants and
animals and their waste
 High amounts may be found in landfills,
volcanic eruptions
 Extremely toxic and can lead to death if someone
breathes it in
 Can dissolve in rainwater making a weakly
acidic solution, contributing to acid rain

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OXIDES OF
NITROGEN
 Nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 Formed from the combustion of fossil fuels
 Dissolves in the rainwater forming ACID RAIN:
2NO2(g) + H2O(l)  HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
 Causes the formation of PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG along with the
presence of other substances

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Author is licensed under
CC BY-SA-NC
CARBON DIOXIDE

 Combustion of fossil fuels

 Carbon dioxide is produced naturally from respiration. This makes the rainwater
naturally acidic
 Excess amounts of carbon dioxide releasing into the atmosphere results in harm to
the environment
 Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, so it can lead to the GREENHOUSE
EFFECT
 The greenhouse effect eventually results in GLOBAL WARMING
 Carbon dioxide can dissolve in precipitation resulting in ACID RAIN
 CO2(g) + H2O(l)  H2CO3(aq) – carbonic acid
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCs)

 Used in refrigerants and aerosols

 These rise to the stratosphere where they break down in the presence of UV light
forming free radicals
 The free radicals react with the ozone molecules in the stratosphere causing
DEPLETION OF THE OZONE LAYER

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CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION
POISONING

 Toxic gases include carbon monoxide, hydrogen

sulphide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen monoxide
and nitrogen dioxide
 If they are breathed in, it may lead to respiratory
difficulties and even death
 ACID RAIN

 When acidic gases are present, they dissolve in the

clouds forming acids
 When the rain falls, it is more acidic than normal
 Consequences of acid rain include:
 Destruction of buildings and concrete
structures
 Corrosion of metals in structures
 Release of toxic heavy metal ions into the soil
 Destruction of plant life
 Acidification of waters – destruction of
aquatic life
 Acidification of soils (soils become infertile)

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 GREENHOUSE EFFECT
AND GLOBAL WARMING

 Some gases can absorb heat, such as carbon dioxide

 When they absorb heat, it results in an increase in
temperature of the atmosphere. This is called the
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
 When this causes a rise in temperatures globally, this is
called GLOBAL WARMING
 Consequences of global warming include:
 Climate change
 Melting of polar ice caps
 Extinction certain plant and animal species
 Coastal flooding

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DEPLETION OF THE
OZONE LAYER
 This is caused by CFCs which are released into
the atmosphere
 The ozone layer functions to absorb UV light
from the sun. Depletion of the ozone layer results
in an increased presence of UV light in the lower
levels of the atmosphere
 Consequences of depletion of the ozone layer
include:
 Faster aging of skin
 Formation of cataracts and other eye ailments
 Skin melanomas and skin cancer

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 PHOTOCHEMICAL
SMOG
 When certain conditions are present, photochemical smog forms.
 These conditions include:
 Conditions:
 Presence of oxides of nitrogen
 Presence of volatile organic compounds
 Ozone
 Temperature >18°C
 Very little air movements
 Consequences of photochemical smog include:
 Very poor visibility
 Respiratory problems
 Economic losses

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WATER POLLUTION
NITRATES AND PHOSPHATES

 Nitrates and phosphates are found mostly in sewage, fertilisers and detergents
 When excess fertilisers are used, they can enter waters when rain falls (surface runoff)
 They can also enter into soil and emerge in groundwater (leaching)
 Improper sewage treatment can also lead to algal bloom
 They cause a growth in the algae population in the water (algal bloom)
 Algal bloom reduces the amount of oxygen in water in the following ways:
 They block the sunlight preventing aquatic plants from photosynthesizing
 They use the oxygen in the water for respiration
 When they die, they use the oxygen in the water for decomposition
 Eventually the aquatic organisms do not have enough oxygen and they die
 This entire process is called EUTROPHICATION

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LAND POLLUTION
 HERBICIDES AND
PESTICIDES
 Herbicides and pesticides contain toxic
substances which may be absorbed by plants
 Once consumed, these toxic substances can
bioaccumulate
 These can cause health problems

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IMPROPER SOLID
WASTE DISPOSAL
 When solid waste, eg plastics, are disposed of
improperly, they can also have consequences on the
environment.
 Burning of plastics can release toxic gases into the
atmosphere, and other gases leading to air pollution
 Improper dumping of solid waste can lead to the
following consequences:
 Flooding
 Harboring of pests
 Spread of diseases
 Reduction in land value
WATER
PROPERTIES OF
WATER
 Water is a polar substance
 Unusually high boiling point
 High heat of vapourisation and specific heat
capacity
 High surface tension and capillarity
 Ice has a lower density than water

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 POLARITY OF WATER

 Water is polar which means that it can dissolve

polar substances and ionic substances
 Water is an excellent solvent
 It is the medium in which all metabolic processes
in the body occur
 It is the solvent used to transport substances in
plants and animals (blood)

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HIGH HEATS OF
VAPOURISATION
 Water molecules absorb a lot of energy in
order to vapourise
 As a result, when someone perspires, it allows
the person to cool down more
 Because of this, water has an unusually high
boiling point

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 HIGH SURFACE TENSION

 Because of the bonding present between water molecules, they are

very strongly attracted to each other.
 As a result, the surface tension of water is very high
Certain insects can walk on water
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
 Because of the high surface tension, water can ‘climb’ up a tube to
its level… this is called capillarity

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 DENSITY CHANGES

 When water reaches 4°C, the molecules arrange

themselves in a pattern and become further away
from each other. This causes the water to expand
 This results in the solid form of water (ice)
having a lower density than water
 So when ice forms, it floats on water, preserving
life underneath

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HARDNESS OF WATER

 Water is considered hard when it contains Ca2+ and Mg2+

 There are two types of hardness – temporary hardness and permanent hardness
 Water is naturally acidic, so when it flows over rocks, some compounds can dissolve in the
water. When those compounds contain calcium and magnesium ions, the water is known as
hard water
TEMPORARY HARDNESS

 This occurs when rainwater flows over limestone

 This is caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium hydrogen
carbonates in the water
 Can be removed easily by boiling water:
 Ca(HCO3)2(aq)  CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
 This can cause lime build up in pipes etc

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PERMANENT HARDNESS

 Cannot be removed by boiling

 Forms when water flows over gypsum and alabaster
 Results in calcium and magnesium sulphates present in water
 Removed by the use of washing soda:
Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq)  CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
  Calcium and magnesium ions are needed for proper development of
BENEFITS OF bones and teeth
HARDWATER
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF HARDWATER

 Can clog pipes etc

 Formation of scum in kettles, pots etc
 Formation of soap scum in bathroom
 Alter the taste of water
 Unwanted reactions in industrial processes
WATER TREATMENT
Pollutants in water may be of 2 kinds:

 Biological – debris, organic matter, microorganisms

 Chemical – nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals (lead, mercury), cyanides, trace metals,
petroleum residue etc. which may be harmful if consumed
 Physical – these are sediments or particulates which may be present in the water
STEPS IN PURIFICATION OF GROUNDWATER
(AQUIFER) OR SURFACE WATER

 SCREENING – Filtering of large debris. This removes any large particles or organic matter from the water.
This process is not necessary for groundwater as the soil already removes the large debris from this water.
 AERATION – bubbling air through water to remove dissolved gases like HS, organosulphur compounds or
volatile organic compounds (carbon is converted to CO 2). Fe2+ ions are oxidised to Fe3+ ions.
 COAGULATION – addition of aluminium sulphate or iron (III) sulphate with lime which causes colloidal
particles to coagulate and form floc.
 FLOCCULATION – the floc settles and forms a sludge.
 FILTRATION – removes the sludge using sand beds which is then disposed of.
 PASSING THROUGH ACTIVATED CHARCOAL – the organic molecules adhere to activated charcoal and
are removed.
 DISINFECTION – destroys viruses and bacteria which are in the water. Chlorine gas or sodium hypochlorite
are commonly used. Other disinfectants include UV radiation, ozone, chloramines, chlorine dioxide.
More on disinfection of water

 Chlorine gas or sodium hypochlorite – these are strong oxidising agents which kill
microorganisms in the water. One advantage of this method of disinfection is these
compounds remain in the water for a long time and hence the water can remain bacteria-
free for a long time. One disadvantage is that these compounds can affect the taste of the
water.
 Ozone – ozone is also another gas that can be bubbled into the water in order to disinfect
it. Once it has reacted, there is no residue and disinfection stops. Ozone does not affect the
taste of the water.
 UV radiation – water can also be disinfected by shining UV light on it. This does not form
any dangerous by products and adds no taste or odour to the water
PRINCIPLES
OF GREEN
CHEMISTRY
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 12 PRINCIPLES OF GREEN CHEMISTRY
1. Prevent waste – less pollution and economic strain to dispose of waste
2. Maximize atom economy – less waste
3. Less hazardous chemical synthesis – manufacturing conditions to be safer
4. Safer chemicals and products – safer manufacturing conditions and less risk to neighbouring
residents
5. Safer solvents and reaction conditions – safer manufacturing conditions
6. Increase energy efficiency – more economical
7. Use renewable feedstocks – raw materials can be easily sourced and remade
8. Avoid chemical derivatives - less toxic by products
9. Use catalysts – faster reactions, more economical
10. Design products and chemicals to degrade after use – less pollution
11. Analyse in real time to prevent pollution – reduce long term effects
12. Minimise potential for accidents – safer manufacturing conditions