Classification of

Organisms
History of Taxonomy
 Early System of Classification

 Taxonomy is the branch of

biology that names and
groups organisms according
to their characteristics and
evolutionary history.
 Organisms were first
classified more than 2,000
years ago by the Greek
philosopher Aristotle.
 Early System of Classification
 Organism’s were grouped into land dwellers,
water dwellers, and air dwellers.
 Plants were placed into three categories
based on the differences in their stems.
 As new organism’s were discovered, his
system became inadequate.
 Categories were not specific enough.

 Common names did not describe a species

accurately.
 Names were long and hard to remember.
 Modern System:Hierarchy
Seven Levels of Organization
 Carolus Linnaeus (mid-1700’)s
was a Swedish biologist who
established a simple system
for classifying and naming
organisms.
 He developed a Hierarchy (a
ranking system) for classifying
organisms that is the Basis for
Modern Taxonomy.
 For this reason, he is
considered to be “father” of
modern taxonomy.
 Modern System a Nested Hierarchy-
Seven Levels of Organization
 Linnaeus used an organisms morphology
(form and structure), to categorize it.
 His system is still being used today.
 His system allowed organisms to be grouped
with similar organisms.
 He first divided all organisms into two
Kingdoms, Plantae (Plants) AND Animalia
(animals).
 This was the same as Aristotle’s main
categories.
 Modern System a Nested Hierarchy-
Seven Levels of Organization
 Modern System:
 Each kingdom (plant and animal) was divided into a
phylum* (division for plants)
 Each phylum into a smaller groups called class.
 Each class was divided into an order.
 Each order was divided into family (families).
 Each family was divided into a genus (plural-
genera)
 Each genus was divided into a species. (scientific
name)

*Note: Phyla and family were not in Linnaeus’s classification system but were
added by modern scientists.
 Levels of Classification
 Remember: King Philip Came Over For
Grandma’s Soup.
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
See Table 18-1 on page 338 :Classification Hierarchy of Organisms
Classification Hierarchy
of Organisms
Classification of Modern
Humans
Classification of cheetah
 Modern Taxonomists
 Taxonomists split species into subsets called
varieties.
 Zoologists refer to variations of a species that
occur in different geographic areas called
subspecies.
 To classify organisms, modern taxonomist
consider the phylogeny (evolutionary history)
of the organism.
 Additional Levels of
Organization
 Botanist sometimes
split species into
subsets known as
VARIETIES.
 Peaches and

nectarines are a
different variety of
the peach tree,
Prunus persica
peach
 Binomial Nomenclature
 Names were based on Latin or Ancient Greek words -
scientist everywhere understood these languages.
 The FIRST word of the Scientific Name (Species Name)
is the name of the genus to which the organism
belongs.
 The Genus name refers to the relatively small group

of organisms to which a particular type of organism

belongs.
 The SECOND word of the name is the species. (Species
identifier)
 The Species name is usually a Latin description of

some important characteristic of the organism.

 Binomial Nomenclature:
Rules for Writing Scientific Names
 When we use the Latin name for an organism, we
ALWAYS capitalize the Genus (first part) but NOT the
species identifier (second part).
 We also print the name in Italics or Underline them. For
example:
 Acer rubrum (scientific name) - red maple tree (common

name) or Acer rubrum

 Acer is the Latin name for Maple (genus)

 rubrum is the Latin word for Red (species)

 OR the name can be abbreviated as: A. rubrum

 Humans are named: Homo sapiens
 Homo because of our large brain and upright posture.

 sapiens because of our intelligence and ability to speak.

Modern Phylogenetic
Taxonomy
 Systematics
 Systematics is a system that organizes the
tremendous diversity of organisms into a
phylogenetic tree.
 A phylogenetic tree is a family tree that’s shows
the evolutionary relationships thought to exist
between organisms.
 It represents a hypothesis that is based on lines of
evidence such a the fossil record, morphology,
embryological patterns of development, and
chromosomes and macromolecules.
 The Fossil Record
 The fossil record often provides clues to
evolutionary relationships
 It can not be read like a story book because
some fossil records are incomplete
 Systematic taxonomists consider other
evidence to confirm information contained
within the fossil record with other lines of
evidence, like…
 Morphology
 Taxonomists study an
organism’s morphology and
compare it to other living
organisms.
 Homologous features are important
but it is important to separate
features that are truly homologous
with those the seem homologous
but are actually analogous.
 The more homologous features two
organisms share, the more closely
related they are thought to be.
 Embryological Patterns
of Development
 Early pattern in
embryological
development provide
evidence of phylogenetic
relationships.
 They also provide means
of testing hypotheses
about relationships that
have developed from
other lines of evidence
 Chromosomes and
Macromolecules
 Taxonomists use comparisons of
macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, and
proteins as a kind of “molecular clock”.
 Scientists compare amino acid sequences
for homologous protein molecules of
different species.
 The number of amino acid differences a clue
to how long ago two species diverged from a
shared evolutionary ancestor.
 Chromosomes and
Macromolecules
 Biologists also compare the karyotypes or
patterns of chromosomes of two related
species.
 Regions of chromosomes that have the
same pattern of banding are clues to the
relatedness of organisms.
 The chromosomes of humans and
chimpanzees show a surprising degree of
similarity (see fig 18-5,page345)
 Comparison of Karyotypes

 Human (HSA), chimpanzee (PPA), gorilla (GGO), and

orangutan (PPY) chromosomes are illustrated in a
comparative karyotype of the great apes.
 Photo courtesy of Dr. Mariano Rocchi, Institute of Genetics, Italy.
 Cladistics
 Cladistics is a system of taxonomy that
reconstructs phylogenies by inferring relationships
based on similarities.
 It is used to determine the sequence in which
different groups of organisms evolved.
 To do this, it focuses on a set of unique
characteristics found in a particular group of
organisms.
 These unique characteristics are called derived
traits or derived characters.
 Cladogram
 Using patterns of shared derived
traits, biologists used cladisitcs
to construct a branching diagram
called a cladogram.
 A cladogram shows show a
sequence in which different
groups of organisms evolved
 The key to Cladistics is
identifying morphological,
physiological, molecular, or
behavioral traits that differ
among the organism being
studied and that can be
attributed a common ancestor.
Two Modern Systems
of Classification
Six-Kingdom System
KINGDOM:ARCHAEBACTERIA

 Modern Archaebacteria MAY BE Directly descended from and very

similar to the First Organisms on Earth. 
 They Are UNICELLULAR PROKARYOTES with distinctive Cell
Membranes as well as Biochemical and Genetic Properties that
differ from ALL other kinds of life. 
 Some are autotrophic, producing food by chemosynthesis.
Includes Chemosynthetic Bacteria
 Most are heterotrophic. 
 Many Archaebacteria live in harsh environments such as
Sulfurous Hot Springs, very salty lakes, and in anaerobic
environments, such as the intestines of mammals.
 KINGDOM EUBACTERIA
 They are UNICELLULAR
PROKARYOTES.  Most of the
Bacteria (Germs) that affect your
life are members of the Kingdom
Eubacteria. 
 Eubacteria are both autotrophic
and heterotrophic.
 Includes the disease-causing
bacteria such as tooth decay or E. coli
food poisoning.
 The Combined Kingdoms,
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
include the greatest number of
living things on Earth. 
 ALL OF THE PROKARYOTES
ARE IN THESE TWO KINGDOMS.
 Both reproduce by binary fission,
but they do have some ways to
recombine genes, allowing
evolution to occur. Staphylococcus
 KINGDOM PROTISTA
 These organisms are placed here
more because of What They Are Not
than What They Are. 
 Kingdom Protista contains all
eukaryotes that are NOT Plants,
Animal, or Fungi, more than 50,000
species in all. Kingdom Protista
includes unicellular and a few simple Amoeba
multicellular EUKARYOTES.
 Eukaryotic cells have nuclei and
organelles that are surrounded by
membranes.
 The cells of multicellular protists are
not specialized to perform specific
functions in the organisms.
 Includes Euglena and Amoeba. Euglena
 KINGDOM FUNGI
 Fungi are eukaryotes, and most are
multicellular.
 The cells of fungi have cell walls that
contain a material called chitin.
 These organisms are heterotrophic
and obtain their nutrients by releasing
digestive enzymes into a food source.
 They absorb their food after it has
been digested by the enzymes.
 Fungi act either as decomposers or
as parasites in nature.
 Kingdom Fungi includes molds,
mildews, mushrooms, and yeast.

mushroom
 KINGDOM PLANTAE
 Plants are eukaryotic, multicellular
and carry out photosynthesis. They
are autotrophs.
 The cells of plants have cell walls,
that contain the polysaccharide
cellulose.
 Plant cells are specialized for
Flowering plant (Poinsettia)
different functions, such as
photosynthesis, the transport of
materials, and support.
 Kingdom Plantae includes mosses,
ferns, cone-bearing plants
(gymnosperms), and flowering
plants (angiosperms).

fern
 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
 Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic,
and heterotrophic.
 Animal cells have NO CELL WALLS.
 Most members of the Animal
Kingdom can move from place to
place.
 Some are permanently attached to elephant
surfaces such as sponges and
barnacles.
 Fish, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, and
mammals-including humans belong to
the Kingdom Animalia.
 This Kingdom also includes sponges,
jellyfish, worms, sea stars, and
insects.
jellyfish
 Three Domain System

 Living things fall into three broad groups called domains.

 Domain Archaea (archaebacteria)
 Domain Bacteria (eubacteria)
 Domain Eukarya (eukaryotes)-true nuclei with linear
chromosomes and membrane—bound organelles.
 This Includes Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.