Practical Research 2 - Chap.3

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Practical
Research 2
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
Research Design
Population and Sample Size of the Respondents
Data Gathering Tools
Instrumentation
Dates
Strategy Used to Collect Data

CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN
The study type, research question and hypotheses, independent and

dependent variables, and data collection methods are defined by the design
of a study. It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative
research designs if you consider how the researcher designs for control of
the variables in the study.
• Descriptive Design
• Quasi-experimental
• Experimental
• Descriptive Design
Researchers use descriptive research designs to describe particular

phenomena or relationships within a single group sample. Descriptive designs are
typically used as either pilot or preliminary studies and generally have rather basic
statistical procedures. By nature, descriptive studies do not and cannot be used to
explain causation.
Descriptive research designs usually provide researchers with information

about a group or phenomenon about which there has been little research.
However, descriptive studies lack randomization and control and cannot be used to
determine causation and other implications. In other words, descriptive research
designs can only be used to determine "who" and "what," not "why."
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
1. Descriptive-survey - This type is appropriate wherever the subjects differ among

themselves and one is interested to know the scope to which different conditions and situations
are obtained among these subjects. The word survey indicates the gathering of data regarding
current conditions. A survey is valuable in: (1) providing the value of facts, and (2) focusing
concentration on the most essential things to be reported. In this type of survey, it is needed to
establish the psychological and social aspects of research by way of application or
implementation of evidence to distinguish between facts and influence.
2. Descriptive-normative survey - The term normative is often used because surveys are
commonly made to determine the normal or typical condition for practice, or to contrast local
test results with a state or national norm. In the descriptive-normative surveys, the results/
findings of the study should be evaluated with the norm.
3. Descriptive-status -This approach to problem solving tries to answer questions to real
facts linking to existing conditions. This is a technique of quantitative description which
establishes the general conditions in a group of cases selected for study. Several studies
emphasize the prevailing conditions with the assumption that things will vary. They envelop
many traits or characteristics of the group.
4. Descriptive-analysis - This method establishes or explains the nature of an object by

separating it into its parts. Its purpose is to learn the nature of things. The researcher should
verify the composition, structure, sub-structure that occurs as units with the larger structure.
5. Descriptive classification - This method is used in natural sciences subjects. The

specimens gathered are classified from phylum to species.
6. Descriptive-evaluative - This design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current

study.
7. Descriptive-comparative - This is a design where the researcher uses two variables that
are not manipulated and sets up a prescribed procedure to compare and conclude that one is
better than the other if significant difference exists.
8. Correlational survey- This is a design to find out the relationship of two variables (X
and Y) whether the relationship is perfect, very high, high, marked or moderate, slight or
negligible.
9. Longitudinal survey- This design entails much time allotted to investigation of the
same subjects of two or more points in time.
• Quasi-Experimental
Researchers use quasi-experimental research designs to identify differences between

two or more groups in an attempt to explain causation. What keeps these types of
experiments from being true experiments is lack of randomization. For example,
researchers cannot randomly assign gender to participants. Therefore, any study in which
researchers are investigating differences between genders is inherently quasi-experimental.
Quasi-experimental designs allow researchers more control to make assumptions

about causation and implications of findings. Quasi- experimental designs are also useful
when researchers want to study particular groups in which group members cannot be
randomly assigned (like persons with depression, single mothers, people from different
races or ethnic groups, etc.). A major drawback to using quasi-experimental design is that
these designs typically have less internal validity than do true experimental designs.
TYPES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. One-group posttest-only design - A type of experimental study in which only one group
receives a treatment and is then measured in a post test after treatment. In this design, there
is no available comparison group or pretest data or baseline condition to compare with. This
design is best implemented as an evaluation model.
2. Static group comparison design - This design attempts to make up for the lack of a
control group but falls short in relation to showing if a change has occurred. In the static
group comparison study, two groups are chosen, one of which receives the treatment and the
other does not. A posttest score is then determined to measure the difference, after treatment,
between the two groups. As you can see, this study does not include any pre-testing and
therefore any differences between the two groups prior to the study are unknown.
3. Nonequivalent control group design - In the nonequivalent control group
design, a treatment group and a comparison group are compared
using pretest and posttest measures. However, these groups are not
randomly selected because they constitute naturally assembled groups
(such as classrooms). The assignment of X (the treatment) to one group
or the other is randomly selected by the researcher.
4. Time series design - A quasi-experimental research design in which periodic

measurements are made on a defined group of individuals both before and after
implementation of an intervention. Time series studies are often conducted for the
purpose of determining the intervention or treatment effect.
5. Equivalent time-samples - This design involves periodic introduction of

treatments followed by measurements with the treatments varied consistently over
time.
6. Multiple time series designs -A type of quasi-experimental design where a series of
periodic measurements is taken from two groups of test units (an experimental group and a
control). The experimental group is exposed to treatment and then another series of
periodic measurements are taken from both groups.
7. Equivalent material design - This design involves giving equivalent samples of

materials to subjects, imparting interventions, and then making observations.
• Experimental
Experimental research designs have the most control, and, thus, allow researchers to
explain differences between groups. One of the key features of an experimental design is
that participants are randomly assigned to groups. Experimental designs can be used to
test differences between groups (such as treatment A group, treatment B group, and
control group) or factorial differences within multiple levels of each group.
True experimental research designs are understood to be the gold standard of

research because experimental research designs are the best designs for researchers to
predict causation. However, true experimental designs often require more resources than
do other research designs and will not work with all research questions.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. Independent measures groups - Different participants are used in each condition of the
independent variable. For example, if the researcher is trying to discover if girls are less
aggressive than boys, then he obviously need two separate groups, namely boys and girls.
2. Repeated measures - The same participants take part in each condition of the
independent variable. Suppose, for example, the researcher wants to find out if people react
more quickly to an auditory stimulus (like a bell) or to a visual stimulus (like a light). He
can use the same participants and try them out with both types of stimulus. This is called a
repeated measures design and is often more accurate than the independent measures design.
3. Matched pairs - Each condition uses different participants, but they are matched in
terms of certain characteristics. Participants can be matched on variables which are
considered to be relevant to the experiment in question. For example, pairs of participants
might be matched for age, gender and their scores from intelligence or personality tests.
Population and Sample Size of the Respondents
The population in statistics includes all members of a defined group that

researchers are studying or collecting information on for data driven decisions. A part
of the population is called a sample. The sample is a proportion of the population, a
slice of it, a part of it and all its characteristics. It is a subset of a population that is
used to represent the entire group as a whole. When doing research, it is often
impractical to survey every member of a particular population because the sheer
number of people is simply too large.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Sampling is a process or technique of choosing a sub-group from a population

to participate in the study. It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a
study in such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group from
which they were selected. There are two major sampling procedures in research that
have been developed to ensure that a sample adequately represents the target
population. These include probability and non probability sampling.
Probability Sampling Procedures
In probability sampling, everyone has an equal chance of being selected.
This scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance of being
selected in the sample.
1. Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling, every individual in the target population

has an equal chance of being part of the sample. This requires two steps:
1. Obtain a complete list of the population.

2. Randomly select individuals from that list for the sample.
2. Systematic Sampling
ln systematic sampling, the researcher selects every nth member after randomly
selecting the first through nth element as the starting point. For example, if the researcher
decides to sample 20 respondents from a sample of 100, every 5th member of the
population will systematically be selected.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
In stratified random sampling, the researcher first divides the population into groups
based on a relevant characteristic and then selects participants within those groups.
4. Cluster Sampling Procedure
In cluster sampling, a cluster (a group of population elements), constitutes the

sampling unit, instead of a single element of the population. The sampling in this
technique is mainly geographically driven.
5. Multi-Stage Sampling
In multi-stage sampling, the sample is selected in multiple steps, or stages.

Non Probability Sampling Procedures
Non probability sampling is used in some situations, where the population

may not be well defined. In other situations, there may not be great interest in
drawing inferences from the sample to the population. The most common reason
for using non probability sampling procedure is that it is less expensive than
probability sampling procedure and can often be implemented more quickly.
1. Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, the researcher uses their expert judgment to select participants
that are representative of the population. To do this, the researcher should consider factors
that might influence the population: perhaps socio-economic status, intelligence, access to
education, etc. Then the researcher purposefully selects a sample that adequately
represents the target population on these variables.
2. Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is sometimes known as opportunity, accidental or haphazard

sampling. It is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn
from that part of the population which is close to hand, that is, a population which is readily
available and convenient.
3. Quota Sampling
A quota sampling is a type of non-probability sample in which the researcher selects

people according to some fixed quota. That is, units are selected into a sample on the basis
of pre-specified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of
characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied.
Data Gathering Tools
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted

variables in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant
questions and evaluate outcomes. The goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence
that then translates to rich data analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible
answer to questions that have been posed.
Data collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data
collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.
TYPICAL QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
INCLUDE:
• Surveys
• Interviews
• Transcribing
• Observation
• Reading of Documents
Instrumentation
Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement

device (survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between instrument
and instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the device and
instrumentation is the course of action (the process of developing, testing, and
using the device).
Dates
Strategy Used to Collect Data

Practical Research 2 - Chap.3

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z

Population and Sample Size of the Respondents

Data Gathering Tools

Strategy Used to Collect Data

The study type, research question and hypotheses, independent and

Researchers use descriptive research designs to describe particular

Descriptive research designs usually provide researchers with information

1. Descriptive-survey - This type is appropriate wherever the subjects differ among

4. Descriptive-analysis - This method establishes or explains the nature of an object by

5. Descriptive classification - This method is used in natural sciences subjects. The

6. Descriptive-evaluative - This design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current

Researchers use quasi-experimental research designs to identify differences between

Quasi-experimental designs allow researchers more control to make assumptions

4. Time series design - A quasi-experimental research design in which periodic

5. Equivalent time-samples - This design involves periodic introduction of

7. Equivalent material design - This design involves giving equivalent samples of

True experimental research designs are understood to be the gold standard of

The population in statistics includes all members of a defined group that

Sampling is a process or technique of choosing a sub-group from a population

1. Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling, every individual in the target population

1. Obtain a complete list of the population.

3. Stratified Random Sampling

In cluster sampling, a cluster (a group of population elements), constitutes the

In multi-stage sampling, the sample is selected in multiple steps, or stages.

Non probability sampling is used in some situations, where the population

Convenience sampling is sometimes known as opportunity, accidental or haphazard

A quota sampling is a type of non-probability sample in which the researcher selects

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted

Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a measurement

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