STRESS

• What is stress
• Characteristics
• Types of stress • Transactional Model (Appraisal,
Coping Strategies)
• Stages of stress(GAS model)
• Person-Fit Environment
• Stress & Immune system Approach
• Stress & Digestive • Causes/Sources of Stress
• Stress & Circulatory system • Consequences/Effects of Stress
• Other effects of Stress (on behaviour, personality and
performance
• Stimulus Oriented Approach
• Social Support & Wellbeing
• Coping Strategies- Unhealthy &
Healthy
 WHAT IS STRESS?
• Stress is defined as the physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural response to
events that are appraised as threatening or challenging.
• Stress is also defined as a particular relationship between the person and the
environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding their capacity by
endangering their wellbeing (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984)
• Events which cause stress are called stressors.
• Stressors can range from the deadly serious (e.g.., hurricanes, fires, combat) to the
merely irritating and annoying (e.g., delays, rude people, losing keys)
• Research suggests that university students are extremely prone to stress (Ross,
Neibling & Heckert, 2008).
• It can manifest in various ways:
1. Physical problems: Eg., Fatigue, sleeping problems, frequent colds, and even chest pains
2. Behavioural problems: Eg., Uncontrollable crying, binge eating, hitting
3. Emotional problems: Eg., Anxiety, fear, irritability, anger
 IS ALL STRESS BAD?

• No, we need a little amount of stress to keep us motivated.

• The effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need
to promote health and wellbeing is called Eustress.
• The effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors is called Distress.
EFFECTS OF EUSTRESS
1. It motivates
2. It focuses energy
3. It feels exciting
4. It improves performance
5. It is productive in nature
 CHARACTERISTICS OF STRESS
• It is a universal phenomenon.
• It is an individual experience.
• It provides stimulus for growth and change.
• It affects all dimensions of life.
 TYPES OF STRESS
• This is usually brief • People who • This is the most

EPISODIC STRESS

CHRONIC STRESS
ACUTE STRESS

and is the most experience several extreme and harmful

common. This brings acute stressors in a type of stress. It is
some form of sudden short amount of time constant and
change that threatens or whose lives unrelenting in nature,
us either physically or presents with frequent and has a long term
psychologically, triggers of stress, have effect on the body,
requiring people to episodic stress. These mind, and spirit.
make unwanted individuals usually
changes. live in a life of chaos • E.g. A person suffering
and crisis. from anxiety disorders
• E.g. After an argument is constantly stressed
with a friend you • E.g. The “worrier”, a about life.
might have repetitive person always in a
thoughts that cause rush, seemingly
you distress disorganized and
pessimistic people
 STAGES OF STRESS
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model by Hans Selye (1956)

ALARM RESISTANCE EXHAUSTION

• When the body first • As the stressor • When the body’s
reacts to a stressor, the continues, the body resources are gone,
sympathetic nervous continues to release resistance ends and
system is activated. (Fight stress hormones that exhaustion occurs. This
or flight response). The help the body fight off, or can lead to the formation
adrenal glands release resist, the stressor. The of stress-related diseases
hormones that increase early symptoms of alarm (Eg, high blood pressure)
heart rate, blood lesson and the person or or even the death of the
pressure, and the supply animal may actually feel organism if outside help
of blood sugar, resulting better. This stage will is unavailable (Stein-
in a burst of energy. continue until the Behrens et al, 1994).
Reactions such as fever, stressor ends or the
nausea, and headache organism has used up all
are common. of its resources.
 EFFECT ON IMMUNE SYSTEM
• The immune system refers to the system of cells, organs, and chemicals of the body that
responds to attacks from diseases, infections and injuries.
• The study of the effects of psychological factors such as stress on our immune system is
known as psychoneuroimmunology.
• Research finds that stress triggers the same response in our immune system that infection
triggers (Maier & Watkins, 1998).
• The positive effects of stress on the immune system only seem to work when stress is not
continual, chronic condition. As stress continues, the body’s resources begin to fail in the
exhaustion phase of GAS. ( Prigerson et al, 1997).
One reason that the early stress reaction is helpful but prolonged stress is not might be that the stress
reaction, in evolutionary terms, is really only meant for a short term response, such as running from a
predator (Sapolsky, 2004).
• Anything that can weaken our immune system, can have a negative effect on the rest
of our bodily function.
 EFFECT ON DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Disturbed eating habits, acid reflux, diarrhea or constipation are the
common symptoms seen in stressed persons.
• Stress can also be related to obesity which is linked to a host of other
health problems. Though there is no clear evidence that stressful life events
promote the development of diabetes in children or in adults but
• Hormonal changes occurring during acute and chronic stress can affect
glucose homeostasis in both healthy people and in those with diabetes.
(Sharma, 2018)
• Several studies have reported a negative effect of acute stress on
maintenance of blood glucose concentrations in patients with type 1 and
type 2 diabetes (Marcovecchio & Chirelli, 2012)
EFFECT ON CIRCULATORY PROBLEMS
• Several studies have shown a strong association between stress and
cardiovascular diseases. (Bobko, 2007)
• Cardiovascular diseases due to stress-induced mechanisms are mediated
primarily through increased adrenergic stimulation.
• Both adrenaline and cortisol (increased during stress) affect heart and
blood pressure.
• Too much adrenaline makes blood pressure to go up which in turn affects
the functioning of the heart since the heart has to pump harder and faster.
• This can produce coronary heart disease, strokes and sudden cardiac arrest.
• Stress has been reported to be a predictor of incidents of Coronary Heart
Disease (CHD) and hyper-tension among both men and women.
OTHER EFFECTS OF STRESS HORMONES
• In addition to the above mentioned effects cortisol also alters bone
mineral density thus affecting the development of new bones in the
body.
• In young children stress may retard their growth
• In addition to its direct effect on health, stress also produces some
behavioural changes.
• People living in stressful environments are more prone to smoking
which could lead to respiratory disorders and may even lead to
cancer.
• Similarly stressed people are more vulnerable to alcohol consumption
which has its own consequences. (Sharma, 2018)
 STIMULUS ORIENTED APPROACH
• The theory of stress as a stimulus was introduced in the 1960s, and viewed stress as a significant life
event or change that demands response, adjustment, or adaptation. (Holmes & Rahe, 1967).
• According to Holmes, there are 43 life events or lifestyle changes, which can cause stress
• According to this theory, both positive and negative life events are considered stressful. The scale of
stressful life events is used to record the recent stressful experience of the individual, such as divorce,
pregnancy, retirement
• The stress as stimulus theory assumes:
Change is inherently stressful.
Life events demand the same levels of adjustment across the population.
There is a common threshold of adjustment beyond which illness will result.
• Rahe and Holmes initially viewed the human subject as a passive recipient of stress, one who played no
role in determining the degree, intensity, or valence of the stressor. Later, Rahe introduced the concept of
interpretation suggesting that a change or life event could be interpreted as a positive or negative
experience based on cognitive and emotional factors. However, the stress as stimulus model still ignored
important variables such as prior learning, environment, support networks, personality, and life
experience.
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF STRESS
• The transactional model of stress and coping argues that our
experience of stress is ultimately a system of appraisal, response and
adaptation.
• The transactional model of stress and coping proposes that stress is
experienced as an appraisal (an evaluation) of the situation we find
ourselves in.

Appraisal
Coping
Stressor (Primary or
strategies
Secondary)
 STAGES OF APPRAISAL
In our primary appraisal,
PRIMARY APPRAISAL In the secondary appraisal, After this point, we start to

SECONDARY APPRAISAL

COPING followed by RE-APPRAISAL

we evaluate the situation we decide if we have the engage in coping strategies
to decide if it is relevant to ability to cope with the
ourselves. In particular, we situation – usually by
evaluate whether it will examining the balance of The process
bring about the possibility situational demands (such of reappraisal is ongoing
of gain or harm. If it as risk, uncertainty, and involves continually
doesn’t, we don’t worry difficulty etc.) and our reappraising both the
about it (decide it perceived resources nature of the stressor and
is irrelevant).If it is (including things such as the resources available for
relevant, we decide if it social support, expertise responding to the stressor.
is positive or dangerous. If etc., see more here). If we (Ongoing throughout the
we feel it is dangerous, we feel demands outweigh process)
then move into making a resources we experience
secondary appraisal. negative stress.
COPING STRATEGIES OF TRANSACTIONAL
MODEL
• The transactional model of stress and coping argues that we can either adopt problem
focused or emotion focused coping styles. 
• When faced with a challenge, an individual primarily appraises the challenge as either
threatening or non-threatening, and secondarily in terms of whether he or she has the
resources to respond to or cope with the challenge effectively. If the individual does not
believe he or she has the capacity to respond to the challenge or feels a lack of control,
he or she is most likely to turn to an emotion-focused coping response such as wishful
thinking (e.g., I wish that I could change what is happening or how I feel), distancing
(e.g., I’ll try to forget the whole thing), or emphasizing the positive (e.g., I’ll just look for
the silver lining)
• If the person has the resources to manage the challenge, he or she will usually develop a
problem-focused coping response such as analysis (e.g., I try to analyze the problem in
order to understand it better; I’m making a plan of action and following it). It is theorized
and empirically demonstrated that a person’s secondary appraisal then determines
coping strategies.Coping strategies vary from positive thinking to denial 
 PERSON-ENVIRONMENT FIT
APPROACH
• Person–environment fit (P–E fit) is defined as the degree to which
individual and environmental characteristics match (Dawis, 1992;
French, Caplan, & Harrison, 1982; Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, &
Johnson, 2005; Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987). Person characteristics
may include an individual's biological or psychological needs, values,
goals, abilities, or personality, while environmental characteristics
could include intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, demands of a job or role,
cultural values, or characteristics of other individuals and collectives
in the person's social environment (French et al., 1982). 
PERSON-ENVIRONMENT FIT
APPROACH
• Person-environment fit theory focuses on the interaction between
characteristics of the individual and the environment, whereby the
individual not only influences his or her environment, but the
environment also affects the individual (see earlier discussion of
transactional models). The adequacy of this fit between a person and
the environment can affect the person's motivation, behavior, and
overall mental and physical health163; that is, if the fit is optimal, the
individual's functioning may be facilitated; if it is unsuitable, the
individual may experience maladaptation
PERSON–ORGANIZATION FIT
Person–organization fit (P–O fit) is the most widely studied area of person–environment
fit, and is defined by Kristof (1996) as, "the compatibility between people and
organizations that occurs when (a) at least one entity provides what the other needs, (b)
they share similar fundamental characteristics, or (c) both" (Kristof, 1996). High value
congruence is a large facet of person–organization fit, which implies a strong culture and
shared values among coworkers. This can translate to increased levels of trust and a
shared sense of corporate community (Boon & Hartog, 2011). This high value congruence
would in turn reap benefits for the organization itself, including reduced turnover,
increased citizenship behaviors, and organizational commitment (Andrews et al., 2010;
Gregory et al., 2010). The attraction–selection–attrition theory states that individuals are
attracted to and seek to work for organizations where they perceive high levels of person–
organization fit (Gregory et al., 2010). A strong person–organization fit can also lead to
reduced turnover and increased organizational citizenship behaviors (Andrews, Baker, &
Hunt, 2010)
PERSON–JOB FIT
Person–job fit, or P–J fit, refers to the compatibility between a person's
characteristics and those of a specific job (Kristof-Brown & Guay, 2011).
The complementary perspective has been the foundation for person–
job fit. This includes the traditional view of selection that emphasizes
the matching of employee KSAs and other qualities to job demands
(Ployhart, Schneider, & Schmitt, 2006). The discrepancy models of job
satisfaction and stress that focus on employees’ needs and desires
being met by the supplies provided by their job (Locke, 1969, 1976).
PERSON–GROUP FIT
Person–group fit, or P–G fit, is a relatively new topic with regard to
person–environment fit. Since person–group fit is so new, limited
research has been conducted to demonstrate how the psychological
compatibility between coworkers influences individual outcomes in
group situations. However, a study by Boone & Hartog (2011) revealed
that person–group fit is most strongly related to group-oriented
outcomes like co-worker satisfaction and feelings of cohesion.
PERSON–PERSON FIT
Person–person fit is conceptualized as the fit between an individual's
culture preferences and those preferences of others. It corresponds to
the similarity-attraction hypothesis which states people are drawn to
similar others based on their values, attitudes, and opinions (Van
Vianen, 2000). The most studied types are mentors and protégés,
supervisors and subordinates, or even applicants and recruiters.
Research has shown that person–supervisor fit is most strongly related
to supervisor-oriented outcomes like supervisor satisfaction (Boone &
Hartog, 2011).
CAUSES &
SYMPTOM
S OF
STRESS
SOURCES OF STRESS
Individual Factors
Individuals might experience stressful commutes to work, or a stressful couple
of weeks helping at a work event, but those kinds of temporary, individual
stresses are not what we’re looking at here. We’re looking for a deeper, longer-
term stress. Family stress—marriages that are ending, issues with children, an
ailing parent—these are stressful situations that an employee really can’t leave
at home when he or she comes to work. Financial stress, like the inability to pay
bills or an unexpected new demand on a person’s cash flow might also be an
issue that disturbs an employee’s time at work. Finally, an individual’s own
personality might actually contribute to his or her stress. People’s dispositions
—how they perceive things as negative or positive—can be a factor in each
person’s stress as well.
SOURCES OF STRESS
Organizational Factors
There’s a plethora of organizational sources of stress.
• Task or role demands: these are factors related to a person’s role at work,
including the design of a person’s job or working conditions. A stressful task
demand might be a detailed, weekly presentation to the company’s senior
team. A stressful role demand might be where a person is expected to
achieve more in a set amount of time than is possible.
• Interpersonal demands: these are stressors created by co-workers. Perhaps
an employee is experiencing ongoing conflict with a co-worker he or she is
expected to collaborate closely with. Or maybe employees are experiencing
a lack of social support in their roles.
SOURCES OF STRESS
• Organizational structure: this refers to the level of differentiation within an
organization, the degree of rules and regulations, and where decisions are made. If
employees are unable to participate in decisions that affect them, they may
experience stress.
• Organizational leadership: this refers to the organization’s style of leadership,
particularly the managerial style of its senior executives. Leaders can create an
environment of tension, fear and anxiety and can exert unrealistic pressure and
control. If employees are afraid they’ll be fired for not living up to leadership’s
standards, this can definitely be a source of stress.
• Organizational life stage: an organization goes through a cycle of stages (birth, growth,
maturity, decline). For employees, the birth and decline of an organization can be
particularly stressful, as those stages tend to be filled with heavy workloads and a level
of uncertainty about the future.
SOURCES OF STRESS
Environmental Factors
Finally, there are environmental sources of stress. The economy may be
in a downturn, creating uncertainty for job futures and bank accounts.
There may be political unrest or change creating stress. Finally,
technology can cause stress, as new developments are constantly
making employee skills obsolete, and workers fear they’ll be replaced
by a machine that can do the same. Employee are also often expected
to stay connected to the workplace 24/7 because technology allows it.
 CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS
Effects on Behaviour and Personality
• Overeating or under-eating
• Angry outbursts
• Drug or alcohol misuse
• Social withdrawal
• Exercising less often
• Teeth Grinding
• Nervous Tics
• Hair Pulling
Effects of Stress on Performance
• Stress is a universal and common challenge to organization and
employee productivity, it is the reality of modern day workplace.
Employees working in different sectors and organizations have to deal
with stress. (Ajayi, 2018)

• To better understand the effects of stress to performance, Nixon, P.

(1979) created the following graph of the stress performance curve
explaining how stress affects performance in theoretical terms.
 Effects of Stress on
Performance

Positive Effects
• As shown by the graph, performance levels increase when stress management is effective. Stressors such as
pressure and demands can facilitate better stress response and thus, higher levels of performance. For instance, a
basketball player tries to run faster, shoot a three-point shot and succeeds in it because of the pressure he has
obtained from the audience, the close scores and the tough opponents.
• Another example is the short but adequate deadline given to an employee, which motivates and encourages her to
work actively and efficiently on the project assigned to her. Yet another instance is an approaching major
examination which leads a college student to double time on studying and reviewing of lessons.
Negative Effects
• When stress is perceived as uncontrollable or unmanageable, the person begins to experience a gradual to drastic
decrease in performance levels, causing a decline in productivity and enthusiasm to respond to the stress.
• For instance, a very tight deadline is given to an office employee who has to take care of her four children at home
and a sick mother at the hospital. This overwhelming mix of situations, if not managed carefully and totally, will
result to a poor performance at work, bad relationships with other members of the family, ill health, and burnout.
STRESS RESPONSE CURVE
 SOCIAL SUPPORT & WELLBEING
What is a social support network?
• A social support network is made up of friends, family and peers. Social support is different from a support group, which is
generally a structured meeting run by a lay leader or mental health professional.
• Although both support groups and support networks can play an important role in times of stress, a social support network is
something you can develop when you're not under stress. It provides the comfort of knowing that your friends are there for
you if you need them
Risks of isolation and benefits of social support
• Studies have demonstrated that social isolation and loneliness are associated with a greater risk of poor mental health and
poor cardiovascular health, as well as other health problems. Other studies have shown the benefit of a network of social
support, including the following:
• Improving the ability to cope with stressful situations
• Alleviating the effects of emotional distress
• Promoting lifelong good mental health
• Enhancing self-esteem
• Lowering cardiovascular risks, such as lowering blood pressure
• Promoting healthy lifestyle behaviors
• Encouraging adherence to a treatment plan
 COPING STRATEGIES
UNHEALTHY STRATEGIES
•  Substances
• Overeating or undereating
•  Zoning out for hours in front of the TV or computer
• Withdrawing from friends, family, and activities
• Procrastinating
• Filling up every minute of the day to avoid facing problems
• Taking out your stress on others (lashing out, angry outbursts, physical
violence)
 HEALTHY STRATEGIES

• Stress management starts with • A stress journal can help you • If you can’t change the
identifying the sources of stress identify the regular stressors in stressor, change yourself. You
in your life. This isn’t as easy as it your life and the way you deal • Take a
can adapt to stressful
sounds. Your true sources of with them. Each time you feel situations and regain your breath.
stress aren’t always obvious, and stressed, keep track of it in your Take a
it’s all too easy to overlook your journal. As you keep a daily log, sense of control by changing
your expectations and break. Take
own stress-inducing thoughts, you will begin to see patterns and the time to
feelings, and behaviors. Sure, you common themes. Write down: attitude. Reframe problems.
may know that you’re constantly • What caused your stress. Try to view stressful situations relax
worried about work deadlines. • How you felt, both physically and from a more positive
But maybe it’s your emotionally. perspective. Rather than
procrastination, rather than the • How you acted in response. fuming about a traffic jam,
actual job demands, that leads to • What you did to make yourself
deadline stress.
look at it as an opportunity to
feel better. pause and regroup, listen to Take the
your favorite radio station, or
enjoy some alone time. Look
time to
at the big picture. Take recharge
Identifying the Start a stress perspective of the stressful
Adapt to the
situation.
source journal stressor