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History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities
Introduction to
Quantum Physics
Applications of Quantum Mechanics

Introduction to Quantum Physics

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Introduction to Quantum Physics > History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities

History and Quantum Mechanical Quantities


• The Photoelectric Effect
• Photon Energies of the EM Spectrum
• Energy, Mass, and Momentum of Photon
• Implications of Quantum Mechanics
• Particle-Wave Duality
• Diffraction Revisited
• The Wave Function
• de Broglie and the Wave Nature of Matter
• The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Philosophical Implications

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Introduction to Quantum Physics > Applications of Quantum Mechanics

Applications of Quantum Mechanics


• Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
• Lasers
• Holography
• The Periodic Table of Elements
• X-Rays
• Quantum-Mechanical View of Atoms

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Appendix
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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Key terms
• atomic orbital The quantum mechanical behavior of an electron in an atom describing the probability of the electron's particular
position and energy.
• Bell's theorem A no-go theorem famous for drawing an important line in the sand between quantum mechanics (QM) and the
world as we know it classically. In its simplest form, Bell's theorem states: No physical theory of local hidden variables can ever
reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics.
• black body An idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of
incidence. Although black body is a theoretical concept, you can find approximate realizations of black body in nature.
• black body radiation The type of electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
environment, or emitted by a black body (an opaque and non-reflective body) held at constant, uniform temperature.
• black body radiation The type of electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
environment, or emitted by a black body (an opaque and non-reflective body) held at constant, uniform temperature.
• black body radiation The type of electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
environment, or emitted by a black body (an opaque and non-reflective body) held at constant, uniform temperature.
• coherence an ideal property of waves that enables stationary (i.e., temporally and spatially constant) interference
• cryptography the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties
• diffraction The bending of a wave around the edges of an opening or an obstacle.
• electron affinity the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion
• elementary particle a particle not known to have any substructure
• epistemological Of or pertaining to epistemology or theory of knowledge, as a field of study.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

• free-electron laser a laser that use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium, which moves freely through a magnetic
structure
• grating Any regularly spaced collection of essentially identical, parallel, elongated elements.
• ground state the stationary state of lowest energy of a particle or system of particles
• harmonic oscillator a system that, when displaced from its equilibrium position, experiences a restoring force F proportional to
the displacement x
• interference An effect caused by the superposition of two systems of waves, such as a distortion on a broadcast signal due to
atmospheric or other effects.
• ionization energy the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom or molecule in the gas phase
• laser A device that produces a monochromatic, coherent beam of light.
• matter wave A concept reflects the wave-particle duality of matter. The theory was proposed by Louis de Broglie.
• Maxwell's equations A set of equations describing how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other
and by charges and currents.
• Maxwell's equations A set of equations describing how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other
and by charges and currents.
• monochromatic Describes a beam of light with a single wavelength (i.e., of one specific color or frequency).
• particle accelerator A device that accelerates electrically charged particles to extremely high speeds, for the purpose of
inducing high-energy reactions or producing high-energy radiation.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

• photoelectric effect The observation of electrons being emitted from matter (metals and non-metallic solids, liquids, or gases)
as a consequence of their absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation.
• photoelectric effect The occurrence of electrons being emitted from matter (metals and non-metallic solids, liquids, or gases)
as a consequence of their absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation.
• photoelectric effects In photoelectric effects, electrons are emitted from matter (metals and non-metallic solids, liquids or
gases) as a consequence of their absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation.
• photoelectron Electrons emitted from matter by absorbing energy from electromagnetic radiation.
• photon The quantum of light and other electromagnetic energy, regarded as a discrete particle having zero rest mass, no
electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime.
• photon The quantum of light and other electromagnetic energy, regarded as a discrete particle having zero rest mass, no
electric charge, and an indefinitely long lifetime.
• Planck constant a physical constant that is the quantum of action in quantum mechanics. It has a unit of angular momentum.
The Planck constant was first described as the proportionality constant between the energy of a photon (unit of
electromagnetic radiation) and the frequency of its associated electromagnetic wave in his derivation of the Planck's law
• probability density function Any function whose integral over a set gives the probability that a random variable has a value in
that set.
• Rayleigh criterion The angular resolution of an optical system can be estimated from the diameter of the aperture and the
wavelength of the light, which was first proposed by Lord Rayleigh.
• relativistic quantum mechanics a theoretical framework for constructing quantum mechanical models of fields and many-body
systems
• scanning tunneling microscope An instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level.
• Schrödinger equation A partial-differential that describes how the quantum state of some physical system changes with time. It
was formulated in late 1925 and published in 1926 by the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

• semiclassical approach A theory in which one part of a system is described quantum-mechanically whereas the other is
treated classically.
• silver halide The light-sensitive chemicals used in photographic film and pape
• special relativity A theory that (neglecting the effects of gravity) reconciles the principle of relativity with the observation that the
speed of light is constant in all frames of reference.
• spin A quantum angular momentum associated with subatomic particles; it also creates a magnetic moment.
• string theory an active research framework in particle physics that attempts to reconcile quantum mechanics and general
relativity
• wave-particle duality A postulation that all particles exhibit both wave and particle properties. It is a central concept of quantum
mechanics.
• wave-particle duality A postulation that all particles exhibit both wave and particle properties. It is a central concept of quantum
mechanics.
• wave-particle duality A postulation that all particles exhibit both wave and particle properties. It is a central concept of quantum
mechanics.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Davisson-Germer Experimental Setup


The experiment included an electron gun consisting of a heated filament that released thermally excited electrons, which were then accelerated through
a potential difference (giving them a certain amount of kinetic energy towards the nickel crystal). To avoid collisions of the electrons with other molecules
on their way towards the surface, the experiment was conducted in a vacuum chamber. To measure the number of electrons that were scattered at
different angles, an electron detector that could be moved on an arc path about the crystal was used. The detector was designed to accept only
elastically scattered electrons.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Photoelectric Effect
A brief introduction to the Photoelectric Effect and electron photoemission.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Reconstructing a hologram
An interference pattern can be considered an encoded version of a scene, requiring a particular key - the original light source - in order to view its
contents. This missing key is provided later by shining a laser, identical to the one used to record the hologram, onto the developed film. When this beam
illuminates the hologram, it is diffracted by the hologram's surface pattern. This produces a light field identical to the one originally produced by the scene
and scattered onto the hologram

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Recording a hologram
Holograms are recorded using a flash of light that illuminates a scene and then imprints on a recording medium, much in the way a photograph is
recorded. In addition, however, part of the light beam must be shone directly onto the recording medium - this second light beam is known as the
reference beam.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

The periodic table


Here is the complete periodic table with atomic numbers, groups, and periods. Each entry on the periodic table represents one element, and compounds
are made up of several of these elements.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Laser
Red (635-nm), green (532-nm), and blue-violet (445-nm) lasers

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Illustration of the Helium Atom


This is an illustration of the helium atom, depicting the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is
in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar
is one angstrom (10-10 m, or 100 pm).

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Electron Diffraction Pattern


Typical electron diffraction pattern obtained in a transmission electron microscope with a parallel electron beam.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Stimulated Photon Emission


In stimulated emission process, a photon (with a frequency equal to the atomic transition) encounters an excited atom, and a new photon identical to the
incoming photon is produced. The result is an atom in the ground state with two outgoing photons.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

laser
Photons emitted in a coherent beam from a laser.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Trajectories of a Harmonic Oscillator


This figure shows some trajectories of a harmonic oscillator (a ball attached to a spring) in classical mechanics (A-B) and quantum mechanics (C-H). In
quantum mechanics (C-H), the ball has a wave function, which is shown with its real part in blue and its imaginary part in red. The trajectories C-F are
examples of standing waves, or "stationary states. " Each standing-wave frequency is proportional to a possible energy level of the oscillator. This
"energy quantization" does not occur in classical physics, where the oscillator can have any energy.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein


Niels Bohr (left) and Albert Einstein (right). Despite their pioneering contributions to the inception of the quantum mechanics, they disagreed on its
interpretation.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Fluorescence
Fluorescent minerals emit visible light when exposed to ultraviolet light

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Electromagnetic spectrum
This shows the electromagnetic spectrum, including the visible region, as a function of both frequency (left) and wavelength (right).

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Phosphorescence
Phosphorescent material glowing in the dark.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Heisenberg Microscope
Heisenberg's microscope, with cone of light rays focusing on a particle with angle \epsilon

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Blocks in the Periodic Table


A diagram of the periodic table, highlighting the different blocks

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence


Energy scheme used to explain the difference between fluorescence and phosphorescence

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

X-Ray Spectrum and Applications


X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths shorter than those of visible light. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray
spectrum.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Derived and Explained


One of the most-oft quoted results of quantum physics, this doozie forces us to reconsider what we can know about the universe. Some things cannot be
known simultaneously. In fact, if anything about a system is known perfectly, there is likely another characteristic that is completely shrouded in
uncertainty. So significant figures ARE important after all!

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

The Photoelectric Effect


Electrons are emitted from matter by absorbed light.

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Introduction to Quantum Physics

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• Wikipedia. "matter wave." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/matter%20wave
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• Wikipedia. "Heisenberg's microscope." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heisenberg's_microscope
• Wikipedia. "black body radiation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/black%20body%20radiation
• Wikipedia. "wave-particle duality." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wave-particle%20duality
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• Wikipedia. "free-electron laser." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/free-electron%20laser
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physics/definition/monochromatic
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• Wikipedia. "Laser." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%23Gain_medium_and_cavity
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