CYTOGENETICS

PREPARED BY: ARLENE T. CONAG, RMT, LPT

INSTRUCTOR
HISTORY AND IMPORTANCE OF
GENETICS

• GENETICS- study of HEREDITY and GENES

• Central pillar of Biology
• CYTOGENETICS- study of CHROMOSOMES and their
ABNORMALITIES
• Microbial Genetics- genes of MICROBES (bacteria, fungi, viruses)
• Molecular Genetics- molecular structure of DNA and its influence to
overall make up of an individual (DNA is the BLUEPRINT of life)
• Classical Genetics- study of TRAITS
• Dominant- always expressed
• Recessive- not always expressed
• Intermediate- partially expressed
• Polygenic- Multiple genes
• > ALL ARE SEX LINKED/ AUTOSOMAL
• Behavior Genetics- BEHAVIOR of human and animals
• Population Genetics- study of genes of population of ANIMALS,
PLANTS, MICROBES (environmental factors)
• Genomics- study of GENOMES (complete set of genes to create a
genetic sequence)
• Human Genetics- gives emphasis on the understanding and treating
genetic diseases
• GENE- UNIT of hereditary; BIOCHEMICAL INSTRUCTION that tells the
cell to manufacture or produce a certain type of PROTEIN
• Ribosomes- responsible for PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• DNA- sugar, phosphate groups, nitrogenous bases
Humans have 20,000- 25,000 genes and some changes in combination
of genes may lead to genetic disorders

Antigenic traits are the reason to why you have to be vaccinated every
year.
• TYPES OF GENETICS DISEASES
• CHROMOSOME DISORDERS
• Entire chromosomes (or large segments of them) are missing, duplicated, or
altered
• Examples: Down and Turners Syndrome
• SINGLE-GENE DISORDERS
• Disorders in which single genes are altered, these are often termed
mendelian conditions
• Examples: Sickle cell disease, Hemophilia, and Cystic fibrosis (can be from
infection from other organisms like Pseudomonas aeruginosa)
• MULTIFACTORIAL DISORDERS
• Result from a combination of multiple genetic and environmental causes
• Examples: Birth defects (cleft lip, cleft palate) and Adult disorders (heart
disease and diabetes)
• MITOCHONDRIAL DISORDERS
• Caused by alterations in the small cytoplasmic mitochondrial chromosome
• Examples: Lactic acidosis
HISTORY OF GENETICS

1866- GREGOR MENDEL (Austrian), FATHER OF GENETICS, published

the results of his experiments with PEA PLANTS. His work later provided
the mathematical foundation of the SCIENCE of GENETICS.

1869- JOHANN FRIEDRICH MIESCHER (Swiss), first to isolate nuclein-

now known as DNA
• 1900- Modern Science of Genetics:
• HUGO DE VRIES- Dutch botanist and geneticist
• CARL ERICH CORRENS- German

• 1944- OSWALD AVERY

• 1950- ERWIN CHARGAFF (Austrian- born American biochemist),
components of DNA are paired in a 1:1 ratio
• 1970- DNA SEQUENCING was introduced
• 1983- Kary B. Mullis invented POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION
(amplifies the target DNA/ RNA sequence)
• Viruses have their own genetic sequences that are unique from each
other
• We use PCR to detect BACTERIA, FUNGI, and VIRUSES; aids in
DIAGNOSIS especially in MICROBIOLOGY
• 1990- Human Genome Project
• 2002- International HapMap Project
• 2008- 1000 Genomes Project
GENETICS IMPORTANCE AND
APPLICATIONS
• MEDICINE
• Genetic Techniques- cancer and enzyme deficiencies (newborn
screening)
• Gene Therapy- recombinant DNA technology
• Bioinformatics- Genome and gene products for production of
pharmaceutical drugs
• AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
• Breeding Analysis- artificial insemination (injection of semen to vagina),
hormone treatment (triggers more egg cells), and cloning
• Cross Breeding- budding (bud to stem) and grafting
• Transgenic Modification- colchicine- doubles the number of plant
chromosomes resulting to new variety of fruits, vegetables, and flowers
• INDUSTRY
• Brewing Industry- yeast to produce alcohol
• Beer is made of fungi called Saccharomyces cereviceae
• Pharmaceutical Industry- antibiotic such as
penicillin (made of fungi called Penicillum notatum,
to treat SYPHILLIS) and cyclosporine (made of fungi
called Tolypocladium inflatum for
immunosuppressing drug for ORGAN TRANSPLANT)
• Biotechnology- recombinant DNA technology for
bacteria, plants, and animals
• Cytology
•  Study of the microscopic appearance of cells for diagnostic purposes
•  Can be used as a screening tool for healthy individuals at risk of a
particular disease
•  Exfoliative vs FNA cytology
• o Exfoliative – cells desquamated from epithelial surfaces
•  Spontaneous shedding
•  Physically removed from epithelial and mucous membranes
• o FNA – fine needle aspiration of palpable and non-palpable masses
•  Applications of Exfoliative Cytology
• o Detection of malignant cells in body fluids (for staging
cancers)
• o Detection of precancerous cervical lesions
(cervicovaginal or Pap smear)
• o Assessment of female hormonal status in case of
sterility and endocrine disorders
• o For determination of genetic sex
• o Detection of infectious agents
• Gynecological vs Non-gynecological cytology
• o Gyn cytology
•  specimens from the female genital tract
• o Non-gyn cytology
•  Specimens from all other body sites
• Cytology: Fixation
•  Specimen should be fixed immediately for optimal cell
preservation
• o 95% ethanol
• o Equal parts of 95% ethanol and ether
•  If smears from effusions cannot be made immediately, place in:
• o 50% alcohol
• o Saccomano preservative
•  If fluid specimen is enough for cytocentrifugation:
• o Centrifuge at 2000 rpm for 2 mins, decant supernatant and smear the
sediment
• o Prepare at least 2 cytocentrifuged smears and a cell block (similar to
tissue processing)
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING!
INTRODUCTION TO
CYTOLOGY
PREPARED BY: ARLENE T. CONAG, RMT, LPT
INSTRUCTOR
CHROMOSOME

PREPARED BY: ARLENE T. CONAG, RMT, LPT

INSTRUCTOR
Chromosomes
• darkly stained bodies seen during the metaphase stage of
Mitosis
• Strasburger 1875
• the term chromosome was coined by Waldeyer in 1888
Chromonemata-composed of thin chromatin threads
-undergo coiling & super coiling during
prophase and it become readily observable by the light

microscope
main features of eukaryotic chromosomes
• 1. Chromosomes are clearly visible during mitotic metaphase.
• 2. Chromosomes bear genes in a linear fashion and thus are
concerned with transmission of characters, from generation to generation.
• 3. Chromosomes of eukaryotes are enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
• 4. Chromosomes vary in shape, size and number in different species of
Plants and animals.
• 5. Chromosomes have property of self-duplication, segregation and
mutation.
• 6. Chromosomes are composed of DNA, RNA and histones. DNA is the
major genetic constituent of chromosome.
Chromosome shape
• usually observed during anaphase
• determined by the position of centromere
• rod shape, J shape and V shape
Chromosome size
• measured at mitotic metaphase. It is measured in two ways:
in length and diameter maximum length of chromosome is observed
during interphase and minimum during anaphase varies from species to
species
• Giant chromosomes have length upto 300μ
Chromosome number
• Each species has definite and constant somatic and gametic chromosome number.
• Somatic chromosome- is the number of chromosomes found in somatic cells and it is
represented as diploid number (2n)
-contain two copies of each
• chromosome (except sex chromosome) one of which is inherited from father
while other is inherited from mother.
• Gametic cells or gamets contain one half of the somatic chromosome number
which is represented by haploid number or (n).
• The genetic chromosome number of a true diploid species is called basic number.
• It is the minimum haploid chromosome number of any species, which is denoted
• by x.
Chromosome structure
• The structure of chromosome becomes easily visible during
metaphase due to coiling of interphase chromosomes. Each
chromosome consists of seven parts: (i)centromere, (2) chromatids, (3)
seconday constriction and sataellite, (4) telomere, (5) chromomere, (6)
Chromonema and (7) matrix
• 1. Centromere (Primary Constriction)
• It is a localized region of the chromosome with which spindle fibres
are attaced during metaphase.
Chromosome structure
1. Centromere (Primary Constriction)
• four important functions: (i) orientation of chromosomes at
metaspace, (ii) Movement of chromosome during anaphase,
(iii) formation of chromatids, and (iv) chromosomes shape.
Centromere may occupy various positions on the chromosome, viz.,
terminal, sub-terminal, median etc
• 2. Chromatid
• One of the two distinct longitudinal subunits of a chromosome
• These subunits of a chromosome get separated during anaphase.
2. Chromatid
• Chromatids are of two types: sister chromatids and non-sister chromatids.
• 3. Secondary Constriction
• Some chromosome exhibits secondary constriction in addition to primary
constriction. It may be present either in short or long arm of the
chromosome. The chromosomal region between secondary constriction and
nearest telomere (end of the chromosome) is called as satellite or trapant.
The chromosome having satellite is known as satellite chromosomes. The
position of secondary constriction in the chromosome is constant. The
number of satellite chromosome in a genome varies from species to species.
4. Telomere
• The two ends of the chromosomes are known at telomeres.
• highly stable and they do not fuse or unite with telomeres of other
chromosomes
• The structural integrity and individuality of the chromosome is
maintained by telomeres.
• 5. Nucleolar Organizer Region (NOR)
• During interphase, nucleolus of the cell is always associated with secondary
construction of satellite chromosome. So the secondary constriction is also
called as NOR. The NOR contain several copies of gene coding for ribosomal
RNA.
6. Chromomeres
• The chromosome of some of the species show small bead like structures called
as chromomeres
• 7. Chromonema
• Under light microscope, thread like coiled structures are found in the
chromosomes and chromatids which are called chromonema (plural
chromonemata).
three main functions:
a. controls size of chromosomes
b. results in duplication of chromosomes
c. gene bearing portion of chromosomes
8. Matrix
• A mass of aromatic material in which chromonemata are embedded
is called matrix
• Matrix is enclosed in a sheath which is known as pellicle. Both matrix
and pellicle are non genetic materials.
Karyotype
• Karyotype is a phenotypic appearance of chromosomes of a particular
species. In the study of kayotype, various features of chromosomes are
taken into account: (i)number (ii) position of centromere (iii) size (iv)
possibility of satellite (v) degree and distribution of meterchromatin
• Idiogram
-Diagramatic representation of morphological features of haploid
chromosome complements of a species is known as ideogram.
• Heterochromatin
-The region of the chromosome, which takes up deep stain during
interphase and prophase, is called heterochromatin
2 Tyes of Heterochromatin
i. Constitutive Heterochromatin: The regions centromere and telomere
of the chromosome remain permanently in the heterochromatin stage.
ie., it does not revert to euchromatic stage.
ii. Facultative Heterochromatin: It is the region of the chromosome
which undergo euchromatin stage.
• Euchromatin: The region of the chromosome, which takes up little
stain during interphase, is called Euchromatin. It is the active region of
the chromosome, involved in transcription.
Classification of chromosomes
• Chromosomes can be classified in different ways. The various criteria
which are usually used for classification of chromosomes include, (i)
position of centromere, (ii)number of centromere, (iii) shape at
anaphase, (iv) structure and appearance, (v) role in heredity
essentiality, (vi) role in sex determination, and (vii) structure and
function
Chromosome models
• Folded fibre model-chromatin fibres are about 230° A in diameter
• 2. Nucleosome – solenoid model-Chromatin fibres are 300°A in
diameter.
Special types of chromosome
• Lambrush chromosome
-These are the special type of chromosomes found in primary oocyte nuclei
in amphibians. Lambrush chromosomes are up to 1mm length. Each
lambrush chromosome contains a central axial region where the two
chromatids are highly condensed and numerous pairs of lateral loops give
them a characteristics lambrush appearance. The loops are the
transcriptionally active region of the single chromatids.
• Salivary gland chromosome / polytene chromosome / Giant chromosome
-The polytene chromosomes occure in the tissues of salivary glands, guts
epithelium and malpighain tubules of many insects of the order Diptera.
• Iso-chromosome
-A chromosome with two identical arms and identical genes is called as
isochromosome. The arms are mirror images of each other
• ‘B’ chromosome
-It is a particular kind of supernumery chromosome that may or may
not be found in organisms as extra chromosomes over and above the
standard diploid or polyploidy chromosome complements.
 MITOSIS

PREPARED BY: ARLENE T. CONAG, RMT, LPT

INSTRUCTOR
Mitosis
• Mitosis is the process by which a cell nucleus divides to produce two
daughter nuclei containing identical set of chromosomes to the parent
cell. It is usually followed immediately by division of whole cell to form
two daughter cells. This process is known as mitotic cell division
• coined by Flemming in 1882
Cell cycle
• The sequence of events which occur between one cell division and
• the next is called cell cycle. It has two main stages.
• 1. Interphase
• 2. Mitosis or M phase (period of cell division)
1. Interphase
• It is the period between successive cell divisions consisting of process
associated with growth and preparation for mitosis.
2. Mitotic phase
• The mitotic phase leads to separation of replicated DNA into two
daughter nuclei without recombination
The M phase consists of two major events:
1. Karyokinesis
2. Cytokinesis
The karyokinesis has got four distinct stages:
1.Prophase-Coiling and condensation of chromosome takes place
which make them visible as thread like Structures
2.Metaphase-a.)Formation of spindle fibres is completed and
chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibres at the point of
Centromere
b.)chromosomes on metaphase plate or equatorial plate
c.) Sister chromatids of each chromosome are joined together at the
point of centromere
• d.) Chromosomes are clearly visible
3.Anaphase-a.) sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles
4. Telophase-a.) . Chromosomes reach the opposite poles and spindle
fibres begin to disintegrate
b.) Nuclear membrane is reestablished
c.) Nucleoli is reformed
d.) Chromosomes again become thinner and longer by uncoiling and
unfolding
Cytokinesis
• It is the division of cytoplasm.
• This stage normally follows telophase and leads in to G1 phase of
interphase. In animals, cytokinesis is accomplished by formation of
cleavage furrow which deepens and pinches the cell into two daughter
cells. In plants, cytokinesis involves the construction of cell plate at the
centre of the cell and spreading laterally to the cell. Later cellulose and
strengthening materials are added to the cell plate, converting it into a
new cell wall.
Significance of mitosis
• 1. Genetic stability
• 2. Growth
• 3. Cell replacement
• 4. Asexual reproduction
 MEIOSIS

PREPARED BY: ARLENE T. CONAG, RMT, LPT

INSTRUCTOR
Meiosis
• the process by which a cell nucleus divides to produce four
• daughter nuclei each containing half the number of chromosomes of
the original nucleus or cell
• It is also called as reduction division
First meiotic division (reduction division)
• Prophase I-It is the longest phase of meiotic division
-It has five sub stages namely:Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis
-Chromosomes are scattered throughout the nucleus in a
random manner
I. Leptotene
• 1. Progressive condensation and coiling of chromosome fibres.
• 2. Chromosomes are scattered throughout the nucleus in a random
manner
II. Zygotene

• 1. Chromosomes become shorter and thicker

2. Homologous chromosomes lie side by side and this pairing process is called synapsis.
• 3. Each synapsed homologue is called bivalent. It consists of four chromatid
strands called tetrad
• 4. Synaptonemal complex also develops during this stage
III. Pachytene
• 1. Exchange of chromosomal segments between non-sister
chromatids of the homologous chromosome. This process is called
crossing over
2. The point of exchange of chromatid during crossing over is called chiasma
• 3. The homologous chromosomes are attached to each other by
chiasmata
• 4. Synaptonemal complex can be seen between synapsed
Chromosomes
IV. Diplotene
• 1. Separation of homologous chromosomes takes place from one another
which begins from the centromere to end of the chromosomes. This process
is called terminalisation.
• 2. Nuclelus decreases in size.
3. Nuclear membrane disappears.
V. Diakinesis
• 1. This stage begins after the complete terminalization of chiasmata.
• 2. Chromosomes are in more contracted stage.
• 3. Due to further contraction and terminalisation, these appear as
• round bodies evenly scattered throughout the cell.
• 4. Nucleolus disappears.
• 5. The spindle fibres begin to be formed at the end of this stage
• Metaphase I
1. The homologous chromosomes lie on each side of the equatorial plate and
attached with spindle fibres.
2. Due to the contraction of spindle fibres, centromeres of each
chromosome are directed towards the opposite poles towards the
Equator
• Anaphase I
1. At first anaphase, the centromeres do not divide, but continue to hold sister
chromatids together.
2. The homologues separate and individual chromosome moves to opposite
poles.
3. This leads to reduction of number of chromosomes from diploid (2n)
to haploid (n) state.
• Telophase I
1. Chromosomes uncoil and relax and regrouping of chromosomes
occur.
2. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear.
3. Two haploid daughter nuclei are formed.
4. Cytokinesis in telophase I divides diploid mother cell into two
haploid (n) daughter cells. This ends the first meiotic division.
 Second meiotic division (multiplication
division)
• Meiosis II has four stages:
1.Prophase II-the spindle apparatus reappears
2.Metaphase II-centromeres have lined up on the equatorial plane
3. Anaphase II-the centromere of each chromosome divide, allowing
sister chromatids to separate.
4.Telophase II
• Cytokinesis followed by telophase II divide the two cells into four
meiotic products.
Significance of meiosis

• Meiosis enables the chromosome number of a sexually reproducing

species to be kept constant from generation to generation
• Meiosis introduces the genetic variation in the offsprings of sexually
reproducing individuals by means of independent assortment and
crossing over (recombination).
S.No Mitosis Meiosis
An equational division which The first stage is a reduction division
1. separates sister chromatids. which separates homologous
chromosomes at first anaphase; sister
chromatids separate in an equational
division at second anaphase

One division per cycle, i.e.one Two divisions per cycle i.e. two
2. cutoplasmic division (cytokinesis) per cytoplasmic divisions, one following
equational chromosomal division. reductional chromosomal division
and one following equational
chromosomal division.
 Chromosomes fail to synapse; no Chromosomes synapse and form
3. chiasmata formation; genetic chiasmata; genetic exchange occurs
exchange between homologous between homologues.
chromosomes does not occur.

Two products (daughter cells) Four cellular products (gametes or

4. produced per cycle. spores) produced per cycle.
 
Genetic content of mitotic products Genetic content of meiotic products
5. are identical. different; centromeres may be
replicas of either maternal or paternal
centromeres in varying
combinations.

Chromosome number of daughter Chromosome number of meiotic

6. cells is the same as that of mother products is half that of the mother
cell. cell.
Mitotic products are usually capable Meiotic products cannot undergo
7. of undergoing additional mitotic another meiotic division although
divisions. they may undergo mitotic division.
 Normally occurs in most of somatic Occurs only in specialized cells of
8. cells the germ line.

Begins at the zygote stage and Occurs only after a higher organism
9. continues through out the life of the has begun to mature; occurs in the
organism zygote of many algae and fungi
INHERITANCE

PREPARED BY: ARLENE T. CONAG, RMT, LPT

INSTRUCTOR
Gregor Johann Mendel
• father of Genetics
• discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance
• He deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct
units, one from each parent
• tracked the segregation of parental genes and their appearance in the
offspring as dominant or recessive traits. He recognized the
mathematical patterns of inheritance from one generation to the next
Mendel's Laws of Heredity
• 1) The Law of Segregation : Each inherited trait is defined by a gene
pair. Parental genes are randomly separated to the sex cells so that
sex cells contain only one gene of the pair. Offspring therefore inherit
one genetic allele from each parent when sex cells unite in
fertilization.
• 2) The Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are
sorted separately from one another so that the inheritance of one
trait is not dependent on the inheritance of another.
• 3) The Law of Dominance: An organism with alternate forms of a
gene will express the form that is dominant.
Dominance
• The suppression of the expressions of one trait of a character by another trait
of the same character is called dominance
Types of dominance
I. Complete dominance
-If the phenotypes of the heterozygotes as well as homozygote dominant
individuals are identical then the concerned dominant allele is said to have
complete dominance
II. Incomplete dominance
-Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive. In this condition, the hybrids
are intermediate in phenotype. This is called incomplete dominance. (Rr≠RR)
III. Co-dominance
-Expression of phenotypic trait of both homozygotes in the
heterozygote condition is called co-dominance. In Co-dominance, both
alleles of gene have the full expression in heterozygous individuals.
IV. Over dominance or Hetero dominance or Super dominance
-The phenomenon of expression of phenotype in heterogygote in
greater intensity than in the two concerned homozygotes is called over
dominance.The over dominance is not the property of an allele and it is
due to the heterozygous state (inter allelic interaction) of the
concerned gene.
Genetic terminologies

• Gene
An inherited factor that determines biological characteristics of an
organism is called gene. In modern term, gene may be a segment of
DNA which code forsingle polypeptide chain.
• Allele
Alternative form of a gene occupying the same locus of the
homologous chromosome.
• Locus
The position of gene on the chromosome
• Dominance
The suppression of expression one allele by another allele of the same gene is called
dominance.
• Recessive
The characters which lack the ability to express in F1 generation is called recessive.
• Genotype
Genetic constitution (make up) of an individual is called genotype. The genotype of tall
plant is TT/Tt and dwarf plant is tt.
• Phenotype
The appearance of an individual produced by the genotype in co-operation with the
environment is called phenotype.
• Homozygous
1. Individual having identical alleles for a character is known as
homozygous genotype.
2. The homozygous genotypes are produced by the union of gametes
carrying identical alleles.
3. A heterozygote produces different kinds of gametes.
• Pure line
A pure line is a plant which breeds true on selfing, i.e., produces only
one type of offspring on self pollination.
• Monohybrid
The F1 offspring produced by crossing two true breeding parents, which differ in one character
only. The monohybrid individuals are heterozygous at one locus
• Dihybrid
The F1 offspring produced by crossing two true breeding parents, which differ in two characters.
Dihybrid individuals are heterozygous at two loci
• Polyhybrid
The F1 offspring produced by crossing two true breeding parents, which differ
for more than three characters, is known as polyhybrid.
• Back cross
If the F1 progeny is mated back to one of their parents, the mating is termed as
Back cross.
Test cross

• It is a cross between the F1 hybrid and its recessive parent. The purpose of test cross is to discover
how many different kind of gametes are being produced by the individual whose genotype is in
question.
• Uses of test cross
1. Test cross verifies the Mendel’s factorial hypothesis
According to Mendel, a monohybrid tall (Tt) produce two kinds of gametes in equal proportion and
recessive parent produce only one kind of gamete‘t’ .Hence this back cross should give Tall and dwarf
plants in 1 : 1 ratio. In actual experiment also we get tall and dwarf in ‘1:1’ ratio. Thus Mendel’s
factorial hypothesis is verified.
2. Test cross is used for identifying the genotype of an unknown parent
A tall pea plant may be either homozygous (TT) or heterozygous (Tt). Its genotype may be determined
by test cross. If the test cross progeny were tall, then the unknown tall genotype is ‘homozygous’. If
that test cross progeny have tall and dwarf plants in equal proportion, then the unknown genotype is
heterozygous. 
GENETIC MATERIAL
PREPARED BY: ARLENE T. CONAG, RMT, LPT
INSTRUCTOR
GENETIC MATERIAL
• The genetic material controls the organism’s composition and it is identical in the
somatic cells of a multicellular organism. The genetic material has the ability to
replicate with the cell so new cells contain the same genetic material as the
parent cell.
• There are genetic materials found in the form of plasmids. The plasmids are
genetic material found outside the chromosomes of certain bacteria. They are
discrete, circular, supercoiled, and much smaller than chromosomal genetic
information. Plasmids usually contain information encoding for non-essential
traits such as antibiotic resistance and toxins production. Plasmids can replicate
independently from the cell. Conjugative plasmids can be transferred among
bacteria leading to the appearance of new features in the recipient bacterial cell.
DNA STRUCTURE
• DNA is composed of different combinations of four nucleotides:
• guanine (G)
• cytosine (C)
• adenine (A)
• and thymine (T)
• where C is paired with G and A is paired with T on the opposite strand
forming a base.
• The base is attached to a phosphate molecule and a ribose sugar
forming a nucleotide.
DNA as Genetic Material
• Griffith experiment
The phenomenon of transformation in pneumococcus bacterium was
discovered by Fredrick Griffith in 1928. There are two types of
pneumococcus bacteria – virulent (pathogenic) and Avirulent (non-
pathogenic). Virulent strains have polysaccharide capsules and give
smooth colonies. Avirulent strains have no capsules and give rough
colonies. The virulent strain has the antigenic property with serotype III
and Avirulent has the serotype II.
Griffith experiment
RNA AS GENETIC MATERIAL

• RNA is similar to DNA in lots of ways. It is a long chain of sugars linked

together by phosphate groups. There is a cyclic base attached to each
sugar and the bases can pair with matching partners to make a double
helix.
• The really important difference is that RNA has an extra oxygen atom.
This makes RNA less stable than DNA.
• There are advantages. Organisms that need to change rapidly tend to
use RNA as their genetic material. Viruses, such as influenza and HIV, 
choose RNA rather than the more stable alternative of DNA so they can
change and keep one step ahead of the immune system of their hosts.
3 Types of RNA
• mRNA
• tRNA
• rRNA
RNA structure
• RNA typically is a single-stranded biopolymer. However, the presence of
self-complementary sequences in the RNA strand leads to intrachain base-
pairing and folding of the ribonucleotide chain into complex structural
forms consisting of bulges and helices. The three-dimensional structure of
RNA is critical to its stability and function, allowing the ribose sugar and the
nitrogenous bases to be modified in numerous different ways by cellular 
enzymes that attach chemical groups (e.g., methyl groups) to the chain.
Such modifications enable the formation of chemical bonds between
distant regions in the RNA strand, leading to complex contortions in the
RNA chain, which further stabilizes the RNA structure. Molecules with weak
structural modifications and stabilization may be readily destroyed