UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
FIRST SEMESTER 2019/2020

ZLY 211/201: GENERAL ZOOLOGY

DR. (MRS.) F. OLALERU
FACULTY OF SCIENCE ANNEXE

TOPICS: GENERAL ZOOLOGY OF CLASS: MAMMALIA

• Introduction to Class Mammalia
• Characteristics
• External/General Features
• Taxonomy/Classification
• Adaptive Features
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 CLASS MAMMALIA
Introduction to Class Mammalia
The Class Mammalia (Latin mamma, meaning breast) is the most
biologically differentiated group in the Kingdom Animalia. They are
diverse in size, shape, form and function.

Their size range from the tiny pygmy shrew weighing 2.8 g, to the blue
whales weighing about 170 metric tonnes. Fig. 1 showed some examples of
mammals. These include elephant, kangaroo, lion, man, and whale.

This diversity has enabled them to live on the ground, underground, in

caves, and in water. Thus they are found in different habitats such as
deserts, arctic region, and deep oceans.

Some are active during the day (diurnal), or at night (nocturnal). Some
are active at dawn and dusk (crepuscular).

They could live alone (solitary) or in big herds (gregarious), or groups

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Fig. 1: Pictures of different types of mammals

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Mammals are amniotes.
• Amniotes are group of animals that develop an amnion in embryonic life. Amnion is
the innermost extra embryonic membrane that forms fluid filled sac around the
embryo.

• The structure of the skull roof shows three groups of amniotes that diverged in the
Carboniferous Period of the Paleozoic Era. These are:

• Synapsids: (Greek: synapsis = contact, union) includes mammals and ancestors that
have a pair of temporal openings in the skull for attachment of jaw muscles. They
were the first to diversify into terrestrial habitats.

• Anapsid: (Greek: an = without, and apsis = arch). They are extinct amniotes in which
the skull lacked temporal openings; they had solid skulls.

• Diapsid: (Greek: di = two, + apsis = arch). Amniotes in which the skull bears two pairs
of openings (have two pairs of temporal openings in the skull). Examples of diapsids
are avian (birds), and nonavian reptiles (excluding turtles) such as dinosaurs, lizards,
snakes, and crocodiles.
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Unique Characteristics
Mammals are characterized by the presence of:
1. Hairs on the skin which is an epidermal structure. For most
mammals such as sheep, goat, lion, and dogs, most of their
body is covered with hair. Marine mammals like dolphins and
whales do not have hair on their body. Freshwater mammals
like manatee also do not have hair on their body, but the hair is
reduced to whiskers (vibrissae) around the mouth.
2. Brain that is highly developed, especially the cerebral cortex).
3. Three middle ear bones for conducting sound. These are:
a. Malleus (hammer) is the outermost of these bones,
b. Incus (anvil) located between malleus and stapes; and
c. Stapes (stirrup) which is the smallest of the three bones.
4. Females mammals glands which produce and secrete milk for
feeding of young ones.
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Other Characteristics include:

1.Integument with sweat, scent, sebaceous, and mammary glands
underlain with a thick layer of fat.
2.Movable eyelids. The eyelids protects the eyeballs, and is closed
during sleep for most mammals.
3.Fleshy external ears (pinnnae).
4.Four limbs (reduced or absent in some) adapted for many forms of
locomotion and other functions. In manatee, the forelimbs are
reduced to flippers for swimming.
5.Double circulatory system with four-chambered heart (two atria
and two ventricles); persistent left aortic arch; and nonnucleated,
biconcave red blood corpuscles.
6.Brain highly developed with 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
7.Respiratory system of lungs with trachea and alveoli, and voice
box (larynx).
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8. Excretory system of metanephric kidneys and ureters that usually
open into a bladder.
9. Cloaca present in only monotremes (egg laying mammals), but
present but shallow in marsupials.
10. Endothermic (body temperature is determined by animal’s
oxidative metabolism), and homeothermic (nearly uniform body
temperature regulated independent of environmental
temperature).
11. Separate sexes, with different reproductive organs. Sex
determined by chromosomes (males are heterogametic).
12. Internal fertilization; embryos develop in uterus with placental
attachment (rudimentary in marsupials and absent in
monotremes). Foetal membrane is made up of amnion, chorion,
and allantois. They support and protect the developing embryo.

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Taxomomy/Classification

The Class Mammalia is divided into 2 subclasses, 26 Orders, 133

Families, 1117 Genera

Subclass 1: Prototheria
Order Monotremata: has 2 Families that are oviparous.They lay
eggs with leathery shells, and nourish young with milk from
rudimentary mammary glands. Examples: Echnidia (Tachyglossus
aculeatus) and Duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus).
Subclass 2: Theria
Infraclass: Metatheria (Marsupial mammals) or viviparous
pouched mammals
Order: Marsupialia: They have abdominal pouch (marsupium)
where they rear their young (joey). Examples: kangaroos, koalas,
Tasmanian wolves, and bandicoots.
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Infraclass Eutheria: Viviparous placental mammals
Order: Insectivora: Insect eating mammals. Example: moles
Order: Chiroptera: Bats
Order Xenarthra: E.g Armadillos, anteaters
Order Pholidota: E.g. Pangolins
Order Rodentia: E.g. Squirrels, rats, mice, porcupines, carpybara,
guinea pigs
Order Cetacea: E.g. Dolphins, whales.
Order Dermoptera:
Order Scandentia:
Order Sirenia: E.g. Dugong, manatea
Order Carnivora: Flesh eating mammals. E.g. bears, cats, dogs, wolves
Order Lagomorpha: E.g Hare, rabbit
Order Proboscidea: E.g. Elephants
Order Perissodactyla: E.g. Donkeys, Horses and Zebras
Order Artiodactyla: E.g. Antelopes, camels, cattles, deer, goats, sheep
Order Primates: E.g. Chimpanzees, gorillas, monkeys, and humans
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 STRUCTURAL & FUNCTIONAL ADAPTATIONS OF
MAMMALS
1. Integument and derivatives
Integument is external covering or enveloping layer.
Skin: Mammalian skin is the interface between the animal and its
environment. It is thicker in mammals than other vertebrate classes.
It is made up of epidermis and dermis. Epidermis is thinner and
protected by hair, but could be thicker and hairless when subject to
much contact and use: palms and soles.

a. Hair: It is characteristics of mammals: some are hairy, others

have scanty hair (e.g. human beings), and in others it is reduced to
few sensory bristles on the snout (e.g. whales). There are two
kinds of hair:
i. Dense and soft underhair for insulation, and
ii. Coarse and longer guard hair for protection, colouration and
identification of the species of mammal.
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• b. Horns and antlers: True horns found in Family Bovidae
(cattle, buffalo) are hollow sheaths of keratinised epidermis
that cover a core of bone arising from the skull. They are not
shed, are not branched, grow continuously and occur in both
sexes (in sheep, only male has horns). Horns are used for
defense and attack.
• Antlers of the Family Cervidae (e.g deer) are branched and
composed of solid bones when mature. During annual spring
growth, antlers develop beneath a covering of highly vascular
soft skin called velvet. Only males produce antlers (except
caribou). Antlers are shed after the breeding season. Antlers
are useful for defense and attack.

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c. Glands: Mammals have the greatest types of integumentary glands among
vertebrates.
i. Sweat glands are not present in other vertebrates. They occur on body
surface of most mammals. There are two kinds: Eccrine glands secrete
watery fluid, if evaporated from the skin surface, draws heat from the skin
and cools it (heat regulation through evaporative cooling). Apocrine glands
are larger than the eccrine glands. They develop near puberty and secretions
seem to regulate reproductive behaviours and timing of reproductive events.
ii. Scent glands: They are used for communication with members of same
species, marking territorial boundaries for warning, or for defense. Their
location vary. During mating season, many mammals emit strong scents to
attract opposite sex.
iii. Sebaceous glands are usually associated with hair follicles. They keep the
hair pliable and glossy. Most mammals have these glands all over the body.
iv. Mammary glands occur on all female mammals, but in a rudimentary form
on all male mammals. They increase in size at maturity, become larger at
pregnancy. Its secretions that comes out via the nipples is used for nursing
of young.

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2. Food and Feeding: Mammals utilize many variety of food sources. Some need
specialised diets, while others are opportunistic feeders that live on different diets.
Teeth is found in all mammals except monotremes, anteaters, and certain whales.
Teeth modification is related with what the animal eats.
Homodonts had uniform teeth. Mammalian teeth became differentiated to perform
specialised functions such as cutting, seizing, gnawing, tearing, grinding and chewing.

Differentiated teeth are called heterodont. There are four types of teeth in mammals:
Incisors (for biting or snipping), canines (for piercing), premolars and molars (for
shearing, slicing, crushing, or grinding).

Mammals do not continuously replace their teeth as other vertebrates do. Rather most
mammals grow two sets of teeth: temporary set (deciduous, or milk), which is replaced by
permanent set when the skull can accommodate a full set. Only incisors, canine and
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3. Feeding specialization: Early placentals were insectivores with generalized

dentition.
a. Insectivorous
b. Herbivorous: These feed on grass and other vegetation. Two main groups are
i. Browsers and grazers: horses, deer, antelope, cattle, sheep, and goats
ii. Gnawers: rodents, rabbits, and hares.
Based on their stomach structure, herbivores could be:
i. Non-ruminant herbivores (e.g. donkeys, elephants, horses, some primates,
rabbits, zebras). These have simple stomach, small intestine, large caecum and
colon (large intestine).
Rabbits and many rodents eat their faecal pellets (coprophagy) when the food passes
through the stomach for a second time for additional nutrient extraction.
ii. Ruminants have four-chambered stomach: rumen, reticulum, omasum, and
abomasum.
Generally, herbivores have large, long digestive tracts and eat large amount of plant
food to survive.
c. Carnivorous mammals feed mainly on herbivores. Example: foxes, dogs, fishers, and
cats. Since their protein diets are more easily digested, their digestive tracts are shorter
and caecum small or absent.
d. Omnivorous mammals use both plants and animals for food. Examples are pigs,
rodents, many monkeys, and human beings.
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4. Reproduction

Reproductive Cycles
Most mammals have definite mating season so that they can have their young at the
most favourable time (food and weather).

Many males are fertile at any time, but female fertility is restricted to a specific time
in their oestrous cycle. Females are receptive to males only during a brief period in
the cycle, called heat of oestrous.

Monoestous females have a single heat during their breeding season. E.g dogs, foxes,
and bats.

Polyoestrous females have recurrence of oestrous during their breeding season. E.g.
are mice, rats, squirrels, with many that live in the tropics.

Old World monkeys and humans have menstrual cycle that terminates with
menstruation if fertilization does not take place.

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Reproductive Patterns: There are three pattens of reproduction in mammals,

viz:
a. Egg laying mammals, the Monotremes. The duck-billed platypus has one
breeding season each year. Ovulated eggs (usually 2) are fertilized internally.
Laid eggs are hatched after 12 days. Echidnas incubate their eggs in
abdominal pouch. After hatching, young feed by lapping on milk produced
and secreted on the belly fur by the mother’s mammary glands (which are
nippless in these animals).
b. Marsupials are pouched viviparous mammals. They have a short
gestation period and very long lactation period. Young one (joey) is
prematurely born and nourished with high-protein low fat milk in the
mother’s pouch where it develops. Examples are Kangaroos
c. Viviparous placentals mammals (eutherians): cattle, elephants, whales,
etc. There is prolonged gestation period in the uterus of the mother where the
embryo is nourished by food supplied through the placenta.
5 Territory and Home Range: Many mammal have territories where
individuals of the same species are excluded. They mark the boundaries of their
territories with secretions from scent glands or by urinating or defaecating.
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