b.

Logical equivalence (or eduction) is the formulation of a new

proposition by interchanging the subject and the predicate of a
given proposition or by using or removing negatives (Torres &
Hernandez, 2002).

• Eduction has four methods: conversion, obversion,

contraposition, and inversion.
• Conversion is the formulation of a new proposition by
interchanging the subject and the predicate of the original
proposition, but preserving its quality (Reyes, 1988). The given (or
original) proposition is called the convertend; the resultant
proposition is called the converse. There are two kinds of
conversion, to wit, simple and accidental conversion.
Convertend Converse
I Some S are P. I Some P are S.
E All S are not P. / No S is P. E All P are not S. / No P is S.
A All P are S. (Exception)
A All S are P. Some P are S. (Partial Convertion)
I
O Some S are not P. O Invalid
• Simple conversion is a kind of conversion where the quantity of the
convertend is unchanged in the converse. It is applied only to I and E-
remember the two vowels in "sImplE. It is a form of conversion from I
to I, and E to E.(Bachhuber, 1966).
Rules for simple conversion:
(1) Retain the quantity of the convertend.
(2) Retain the copula (or quality) of the convertend.
(3) Interchange the subject and the predicate.
Symbol Proposition
Convertend I Some Bicolanos are industrious people.
Converse I Some industrious people are Bicolanos.
Symbol Proposition
Convertend E All true Christians are not vain people.
Converse E All vain people are not true Christians.
• Accidental conversion is a kind of conversion where the quantity of the
convertend is reduced from universal to particular. It is applied only to A-
remember the first vowel in "Accidental." Accidental conversion is also
called partial conversion, conversion by limitation, and reduced
conversion.
• Rules for accidental conversion:
(1) Change the quantity (from universal to particular) of the convertend.
(2) Retain the copula (or quality) of the convertend.
(3) Interchange the subject and the predicate of the convertend.
Symbol Proposition
Convertend A All murderers are criminals.
Converse I Some criminals are murderers.
• Note, however, that there is one situation in which A to A conversion
is allowed, i.e., a particular term in the converse can be made
universal in the convertend. It is when the subject and the predicate
are terms standing for the same class or terms that are
interchangeable (Kelly, 1988).

Symbol Proposition
Convertend A All men are rational animals.
Converse A All rational animals are men.
NB: O proposition cannot be converted at all. The original subject, as it
is made the predicate of a negative proposition, will be changed from a
particular term to a universal term (Bachhuber, 1996).
• Obversion is the reformulation of a proposition by retaining the subject
and its quantity, while changing the quality of the proposition and
changing the predicate to its contradictory. The original proposition is
called the obvertend; the resultant proposition is called the obverse
(Reyes, 1988).
• Obversion of a proposition yields an equivalent proposition when applied
to all four types (A, E, I, and O) of propositions (Borchert, 2006).
 

Obvertend Obverse
A All S are P. E No S is non-P.
E All S are not P. / No S is P. A All S are non-P.
I Some S are P. O Some S are not non-P.
O Some S are not P. I Some S are non-P.
Rules:
(1) Retain the quantity of the obvertend.
(2) Change the copula (quality) of the obvertend.
(3) Retain the subject of the obvertend.
(4) Contradict the predicate of the obvertend.
Symbol Proposition
Obvertend A All cigarettes are pollutants.
Obverse E All cigarettes are not non-pollutants.

Symbol Proposition
Obvertend E All fishes are not walking animals.
Obverse A All fishes are non-walking animals.
Rules:
(1) Retain the quantity of the obvertend.
(2) Change the copula (quality) of the obvertend.
(3) Retain the subject of the obvertend.
(4) Contradict the predicate of the obvertend.
Symbol Proposition
Obvertend I Some girls are cheaters.
Obverse O Some girls are not non-cheaters.

Symbol Proposition
Obvertend O Some girls are not loyal.
Obverse I Some girls are non-loyal.
• Contraposition is a combination of conversion and obversion. It
involves the interchanging of the subject and the predicate (like
conversion) and the use of contradictories of terms (like obversion).
- The given proposition is called the contraponend, and the new
formulation is called the contraposit. Contraposition is of two types:
partial and full. The process of contraposition (whether partial or full)
yields an equivalent proposition only when the original proposition is
A or O.
- When the original proposition is E, traditional logicians allow for
contraposition per accidens (or by limitation), i.e., contraposition plus
a change in the quantity of the proposition from universal to
particular, claiming that the proposition formed is equivalent to the
original proposition. The process of contraposition yields no
equivalent proposition when the original proposition is I.
 FORMULA OF PARTIAL AND FULL CONTRAPOSITION

Contraponend Obversion Partial Contraposit Full Contraposit

(Given Propsition) (Obverse) (Converse) (Obverse)
All non-P is non-
A All S are P. E No S is non-P. E No non-P is S. A
S.
Some non-P are Some non-P are
E No S is P. A All S are non-P. I O
S. not non-S.
Some non-P are Some non-P are
O Some S are not P. I Some S are non-P I O
S. not non-S.
Some S are not
I Some S are P. O INVALID INVALID
non-P.
Rules for partial and full contraposition:
(1) Obvert the contraponend.
(2) Convert the obverse. (Partial Contraposit)
(3) Obvert the converse. (Full Contraposit)
Symbol Proposition
Contraponend A All architects are artists.
E No architects are non-artists.
(Obverse)
Partial Contraposit E No non-artists are architects.
(Converse)
Full Contraposit A All non-artists are non-architects.
(Obverse)
Rules for partial and full contraposition:
(1) Obvert the contraponend.
(2) Convert the obverse. (Partial Contraposit)
(3) Obvert the converse. (Full Contraposit)
Symbol Proposition
Contraponend E No angels are mortals.
A All angels are non-mortals.
(Obverse)
Partial Contraposit I Some non-mortals are angels.
(Converse)
Full Contraposit O Some non-mortals are not non-angels.
(Obverse)
Rules for partial and full contraposition:
(1) Obvert the contraponend.
(2) Convert the obverse. (Partial Contraposit)
(3) Obvert the converse. (Full Contraposit)
Symbol Proposition
Contraponend O Some women are not loyal.
I Some women are non-loyal.
(Obverse)
Partial Contraposit I Some non-loyal are women.
(Converse)
Full Contraposit O Some non-loyal are not non-women.
(Obverse)
Rules for partial and full contraposition:
(1) Obvert the contraponend.
(2) Convert the obverse. (Partial Contraposit)
(3) Obvert the converse. (Full Contraposit)
Symbol Proposition
Contraponend I Some women are cheater.
O Some women are not non-cheaters.
(Obverse)
Partial Contraposit ___
(Converse)
Full Contraposit ___
(Obverse)
• Inversion, like contraposition, has two types: partial and full. It goes
through a series of obversions and conversions (Bachhuber,
1966).The original (or given) proposition is called the invertend; the
new formulation is called the inverse. Among the four types of
propositions, only A is qualified for inversion (Babor,2003).

Rules for partial and full inversion:

(1) Obvert the invertend.
(2) Convert the obverse.
(3) Obvert the converse.
(4) Convert the obverse. (Full Inverse)
(5) Obvert the converse. (Partial Inverse)
 FORMULA OF PARTIAL AND FULL INVERSION

Invertend Full Inverse Partial Inverse

A All S are P. I Some non-S are non-P. O Some non-S are not P.

E No S is P. INVALID INVALID

I Some S are P. INVALID INVALID

O Some S are not P. INVALID INVALID

 Symbol Proposition

Invertend A All physicians are doctors.

E
No physicians are non-doctors.
(Obverse)
E
No non-doctors are physicians.
(Converse)
A
All non-doctors are non-physicians.
(Obverse)
I
Full Inverse Some non-physicians are non-doctors.
(Converse)
O
Partial Inverse Some non-physicians are not doctors.
(Obverse)
 Symbol Proposition

Invertend E No aliens are voters.

A
All aliens are non-voters.
(Obverse)
I
Some non-voters are aliens.
(Converse)
O
Some non-voters are not non-aliens.
(Obverse)
____
Full Inverse INVALID
(Converse)
____
Partial Inverse INVALID
(Obverse)
 Symbol Proposition

Invertend I Some politicians are corrupt persons.

O
Some politicians are not non-corrupt persons.
(Obverse)
____
INVALID
(Converse)
____
INVALID
(Obverse)
____
Full Inverse INVALID
(Converse)
____
Partial Inverse INVALID
(Obverse)
 Symbol Proposition

Invertend O Some politicians are not corrupt persons.

I
Some politicians are non-corrupt persons.
(Obverse)
I
Some non-corrupt persons are politicians.
(Converse)
O
Some non-corrupt persons are not non-politicians.
(Obverse)
____
Full Inverse INVALID
(Converse)
____
Partial Inverse INVALID
(Obverse)
 SYNOPSIS OF LOGICAL OPPOSITION
Original No S is P.
Proposition A E I O
All S are P. Some S are P. Some S are not P.
All S is not P.

A All P are S. No P is S./

Converse E All P is not S. I Some P are S. - INVALID
I Some P are S.

Obverse E No S are non-P. A All S are non-P. O Some S are not non-P. I Some S are non-P
Partial
Contraposit E No non-P are S. I Some non-P are S. - INVALID I Some non-P are S.

Full Some non-P are not Some non-P are not

Contraposit A All non-P are non-S. O non-P. - INVALID O non-S.

Partial
Inverse O Some non-S are not P. - INVALID - INVALID - INVALID

Full Inverse I Some non-S are non P. - INVALID - INVALID - INVALID