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B. Logical Equivalence (Or Eduction) Is The Formulation of A New
B. Logical Equivalence (Or Eduction) Is The Formulation of A New
Symbol Proposition
Convertend A All men are rational animals.
Converse A All rational animals are men.
NB: O proposition cannot be converted at all. The original subject, as it
is made the predicate of a negative proposition, will be changed from a
particular term to a universal term (Bachhuber, 1996).
• Obversion is the reformulation of a proposition by retaining the subject
and its quantity, while changing the quality of the proposition and
changing the predicate to its contradictory. The original proposition is
called the obvertend; the resultant proposition is called the obverse
(Reyes, 1988).
• Obversion of a proposition yields an equivalent proposition when applied
to all four types (A, E, I, and O) of propositions (Borchert, 2006).
Obvertend Obverse
A All S are P. E No S is non-P.
E All S are not P. / No S is P. A All S are non-P.
I Some S are P. O Some S are not non-P.
O Some S are not P. I Some S are non-P.
Rules:
(1) Retain the quantity of the obvertend.
(2) Change the copula (quality) of the obvertend.
(3) Retain the subject of the obvertend.
(4) Contradict the predicate of the obvertend.
Symbol Proposition
Obvertend A All cigarettes are pollutants.
Obverse E All cigarettes are not non-pollutants.
Symbol Proposition
Obvertend E All fishes are not walking animals.
Obverse A All fishes are non-walking animals.
Rules:
(1) Retain the quantity of the obvertend.
(2) Change the copula (quality) of the obvertend.
(3) Retain the subject of the obvertend.
(4) Contradict the predicate of the obvertend.
Symbol Proposition
Obvertend I Some girls are cheaters.
Obverse O Some girls are not non-cheaters.
Symbol Proposition
Obvertend O Some girls are not loyal.
Obverse I Some girls are non-loyal.
• Contraposition is a combination of conversion and obversion. It
involves the interchanging of the subject and the predicate (like
conversion) and the use of contradictories of terms (like obversion).
- The given proposition is called the contraponend, and the new
formulation is called the contraposit. Contraposition is of two types:
partial and full. The process of contraposition (whether partial or full)
yields an equivalent proposition only when the original proposition is
A or O.
- When the original proposition is E, traditional logicians allow for
contraposition per accidens (or by limitation), i.e., contraposition plus
a change in the quantity of the proposition from universal to
particular, claiming that the proposition formed is equivalent to the
original proposition. The process of contraposition yields no
equivalent proposition when the original proposition is I.
FORMULA OF PARTIAL AND FULL CONTRAPOSITION
A All S are P. I Some non-S are non-P. O Some non-S are not P.
E No S is P. INVALID INVALID
Obverse E No S are non-P. A All S are non-P. O Some S are not non-P. I Some S are non-P
Partial
Contraposit E No non-P are S. I Some non-P are S. - INVALID I Some non-P are S.
Partial
Inverse O Some non-S are not P. - INVALID - INVALID - INVALID