Chapter 2 - Elementary Cryptography

Security in Computing, 4th Ed, Pfleeger
Chapter 2
Elementary Cryptography
By Mohammed Al-Saleh / JUST

1
Chapter 2
In this chapter
 Concepts of encryption
 Cryptanalysis: how encryption systems are
"broken"
 Symmetric (secret key) encryption and the DES
and AES algorithms
 Asymmetric (public key) encryption and the RSA
algorithm
 Key exchange protocols and certificates
 Digital signatures
 Cryptographic hash functions

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Chapter 2
Cryptography
 Cryptography (secret writing) is the strongest

tool for controlling against many kinds of security
threats.
 Well-disguised data cannot be read, modified, or
fabricated easily.
 Cryptography is rooted in higher mathematics
 Group and field theory, computational complexity, and
even real analysis, not to mention probability and
statistics.
 Fortunately, it is not necessary to understand the
underlying mathematics to be able to use
cryptography.
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Chapter 2
Terminology and Background
 Consider the steps involved in sending

messages
 from a sender, S
 to a recipient, R
 If S entrusts the message to T, who then delivers it to
R, T then becomes the transmission medium.
 If an outsider, O, wants to access the message (to
read, change, or even destroy it), we call O an
interceptor or intruder.
 Encryption is a means of maintaining secure data in
an insecure environment.

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Chapter 2
Terminology
 Encryption is the process of encoding a

message so that its meaning is not obvious
 Decryption is the reverse process, transforming
an encrypted message back into its normal,
original form.
 Alternatively, the terms encode and decode or
encipher and decipher are used instead of
encrypt and decrypt
 A system for encryption and decryption is called
a cryptosystem.

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Chapter 2
Terminology
 The original form of a message is known as

plaintext, and the encrypted form is called
ciphertext.

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Chapter 2
Terminology
 The original form of a message is known as

plaintext, and the encrypted form is called
ciphertext.

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Chapter 2
Terminology
 For convenience, we denote a plaintext message P

as a sequence of individual characters
 P = <p1, p2, …, pn>.
 Similarly, ciphertext is written as
 C = <c1, c2, …, cm>.
 We write C = E(P) and P = D(C), where C
represents the ciphertext, E is the encryption rule, P
is the plaintext, and D is the decryption rule.
 What we seek is a cryptosystem for which P = D(E(P)). In other
words, we want to be able to convert the message to protect it
from an intruder, but we also want to be able to get the original
message back so that the receiver can read it properly.

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Chapter 2
Encryption Algorithms
 The cryptosystem involves a set of rules for how

to encrypt the plaintext and how to decrypt the
ciphertext.
 The encryption and decryption rules, called
algorithms, often use a device called a key,
denoted by K, so that the resulting ciphertext
depends on the original plaintext message, the
algorithm, and the key value.
 C = E(K, P)

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Chapter 2
 It would be very expensive for you to contract with

someone to invent and make a lock just for your house.
 Also, you would not know whether a particular inventor's lock
was really solid or how it compared with those of other inventors.
 A better solution is to have a few well-known, well-respected
companies producing standard locks that differ according to the
(physical) key
 Then, you and your neighbor might have the same model of lock,
but your key will open only your lock.
 In the same way, it is useful to have a few well-examined
encryption algorithms that everyone could use, but the differing
keys would prevent someone from breaking into what you are
trying to protect.

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Chapter 2
 Sometimes the encryption and decryption keys

are the same, so P = D(K, E(K,P)). This form is
called symmetric encryption because D and E
are mirror-image processes.
 At other times, encryption and decryption keys
come in pairs. Then, a decryption key, KD,
inverts the encryption of key KE so that
P = D(KD, E(KE,P)). Encryption algorithms of this
form are called asymmetric
 An encryption scheme that does not require the
use of a key is called a keyless cipher.
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Chapter 2

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Chapter 2
cryptology
 Cryptography means hidden writing, and it

refers to the practice of using encryption to
conceal text.
 Cryptanalyst studies encryption and encrypted

messages, hoping to find the hidden meanings.

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Chapter 2
cryptology
 Both a cryptographer and a cryptanalyst attempt

to translate coded material back to its original
form. Normally, a cryptographer works on behalf
of a legitimate sender or receiver, whereas a
cryptanalyst works on behalf of an unauthorized
interceptor.
 Cryptology is the research into and study of
encryption and decryption; it includes both
cryptography and cryptanalysis.

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Chapter 2
Cryptanalysis
 A cryptanalyst's chore is to break an encryption.

 cryptanalyst attempts to deduce the original meaning
of a ciphertext message.
 Better yet, he or she hopes to determine which
decrypting algorithm matches the encrypting algorithm
so that other messages encoded in the same way can
be broken.

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Chapter 2
Cryptanalyst can attempt to do …
 Break a single message

 Recognize patterns in encrypted messages, to
be able to break subsequent ones by applying a
straightforward decryption algorithm
 Infer some meaning without even breaking the
encryption, such as noticing an unusual
frequency of communication or determining
something by whether the communication was
short or long

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Chapter 2
Cryptanalyst can attempt to do …(cont.)
 Deduce the key, to break subsequent messages

easily
 Find weaknesses in the implementation or
environment of use of encryption
 Find general weaknesses in an encryption
algorithm, without necessarily having intercepted
any messages

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Chapter 2
Information needed by a cryptanalyst
 A cryptanalyst works with a variety of pieces of

information: encrypted messages, known encryption
algorithms, intercepted plaintext, data items known or
suspected to be in a ciphertext message, mathematical
or statistical tools and techniques, properties of
languages, computers, and plenty of ingenuity and luck.
 Each piece of evidence can provide a clue, and the

analyst puts the clues together to try to form a larger
picture of a message's meaning in the context of how the
encryption is done.

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Chapter 2
Attack models
 Attack models for the cryptanalysis

 Ciphertext-only:
 is an attack model for cryptanalysis where the attacker is assumed to have
access only to a set of ciphertexts.
 The attack is completely successful if the corresponding plaintexts can be
deduced, or even better, the key.
 Known-plaintext
 is an attack model for cryptanalysis where the attacker has samples of both
the plaintext and its encrypted version (ciphertext). These can be used to
reveal further secret information such as secret keys.
 Chosen-plaintext
 is an attack model for cryptanalysis which presumes that the attacker has the
capability to choose arbitrary plaintexts to be encrypted and obtain the
corresponding ciphertexts.[1] The goal of the attack is to gain some further
information which reduces the security of the encryption scheme.

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Chapter 2
Breakable Encryption
 An encryption algorithm is called breakable

when, given enough time and data, an analyst
can determine the algorithm.
 However, an algorithm that is theoretically breakable
may in fact be impractical to try to break.
 Ex., consider a 25-character message that is
expressed in just uppercase letters. A given cipher
scheme may have 2625 (approximately 1035) possible
decipherments
 If your computer could perform on the order of 1010
operations per second, finding this decipherment would
require on the order of 1025 seconds.
 Infeasible to compute

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Chapter 2
Breakable Encryption
 Two other important issues must be addressed when

considering the breakability of encryption algorithms.
 First, the cryptanalyst cannot be expected to try only
the hard, long way.

 ingenious approach might require only 1015 operations. => 1015
operations take slightly more than one day
 Second, estimates of breakability are based on current
technology.
 Things that were infeasible in 1940 became possible by the 1950s
 A conjecture known as "Moore's Law" asserts that the speed of
processors doubles every 1.5 years, and this conjecture has been
true for over two decades.
 It is risky to pronounce an algorithm secure just because it cannot be
broken with current technology, or worse, that it has not been broken
yet.

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Chapter 2
Representing Characters
 We begin with the encryption of messages

written in the standard 26-letter English-
alphabet, A through Z.
 Convention: plaintext is written in UPPERCASE
letters, and ciphertext is in lowercase letters
 Because most encryption algorithms are based on
mathematical transformations, they can be explained
or studied more easily in mathematical form.

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Chapter 2
Representing Characters
 Consider performing arithmetic on the "letters" of

a message
 Expressions such as A + 3 = D or K - 1 = J have their
natural interpretation.
 Arithmetic is performed as if the alphabetic table were
circular (modular arithmatic)
 every result of an arithmetic operation is between 0 and 25
 Ex. Y + 3 = B (and B – 3 = Y)
 Two simple forms of encryption:
 substitutions, in which one letter is exchanged for another
 transpositions, in which the order of the letters is
rearranged

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Chapter 2
Substitution Ciphers
 The Caesar Cipher

 ci = E(pi) = pi + 3
 A full translation chart of the Caesar cipher is shown
here.
 Using this encryption, the message

 TREATY IMPOSSIBLE
would be encoded as
TREATY IMPOSSIBLE
wuhd wb l p s r vvl eo h
 The pattern pi + 3 was easy to memorize and
implement, however, it is easy break
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Chapter 2
Cryptanalysis of the Caesar Cipher
 Many clues on the "TREATY IMPOSSIBLE”
ciphertext
 the space between the two words is preserved in the
ciphertext
 double letters are preserved: The SS is translated to
vv
 when a letter is repeated, it maps again to the same
ciphertext as it did previously. So the letters T, I, and
E always translate to w, l, and h.
 These clues make this cipher easy to break.

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Chapter 2
 Suppose you are given the following ciphertext message,
and you want to try to determine the original plaintext.
 Ciphertext: “wklv phvvdjh lv qrw wrr kdug wr euhdn”
 27-symbol alphabet: A through Z plus the "blank" character
 Start with small words: English has relatively few small words,
such as am, is, to, be, he, we, and, are, you, she, and so on.
 substitute known short words at appropriate places in the
ciphertext until you have something that seems to be meaningful.
 Once the small words fall into place, you can try substituting for
matching characters at other places in the ciphertext.
 There is a strong clue in the repeated r of the word wrr.
 two very common three-letter words having the pattern xyy are see and too.
other less common possibilities are add, odd, and off

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Chapter 2
 Note that the combination wr appears in the ciphertext
 if wrr is SEE, wr would have to be SE, which is unlikely
 However, if wrr is TOO, wr would be TO, which is quite reasonable.
 Substituting T for w and O for r, the message becomes
 The OT could be cot, dot, got, hot, lot, not, pot, rot, or tot; a likely choice is not.
Unfortunately, q = N does not give any more clues because q appears only once
in this sample.
 The word lv is also the end of the word wklv, which probably starts with T.
 Likely two-letter words that can also end a longer word include so, is, in, etc.
 However, so is unlikely because the form T-SO is not recognizable;
 IN is ruled out because of the previous assumption that q is N
 A more promising alternative is to substitute IS for lv throughout, and continue to analyze the message
in that way.
 By now, you might notice that the ciphertext letters uncovered are just three
positions away from their plaintext counterparts.

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Chapter 2
 The cryptanalysis described here is ad hoc, using
deduction based on guesses instead of solid principles.
 But you can take a more methodical approach,
considering
 which letters commonly start words
 which letters commonly end words
 which prefixes and suffixes are common
 Cryptanalysts have compiled lists of common prefixes,
common suffixes, and words having particular patterns.
 (For example, sleeps is a word that follows the pattern abccda.)

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Chapter 2
Other Substitutions
 In substitutions, the alphabet is scrambled, and
each plaintext letter maps to a unique ciphertext
letter.
 mathematical way description:
 permutation is a reordering of the elements of a sequence
 For instance, we can permute the numbers l to 10 in many
ways, including:
 π1 = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2; and π2 = 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
 A permutation is a function, so we can write expressions
such as π1(3) = 5
 meaning that the letter in position 3 is to be replaced by the fifth letter
 If the set is the first ten letters of the alphabet, π 1(3) = 5 means that C is
transformed into e

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Chapter 2
Other Substitutions
 Alternative to using the permutation (π)

 One way to scramble an alphabet is to use a key
 a word that controls the permutation
 For instance, if the key is word, the sender or receiver
first writes the alphabet and then writes the key under
the first few letters of the alphabet.
 The sender or receiver then fills in the remaining

letters of the alphabet, in some easy-to-remember
order, after the keyword.

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Complexity of Substitution Encryption and
Chapter 2
Decryption
 An important issue in using any cryptosystem is the time

it takes to turn plaintext into ciphertext, and vice versa.
 it is essential that the scrambling and unscrambling not
deter the authorized parties from completing their
missions
 The timing is directly related to the complexity of the encryption
algorithm
 encryption and decryption with substitution ciphers can be
performed by direct lookup in a table illustrating the
correspondence
 Transforming a single character can be done in a constant
amount of time, so we express the complexity of the algorithm by
saying that the time to encrypt a message of n characters is
proportional to n ( O(n) )

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Chapter 2
Cryptanalysis of Substitution Ciphers
 The techniques described for breaking the Caesar cipher
can also be used on other substitution ciphers
 Short words, words with repeated patterns, and common initial
and final letters all give clues for guessing the permutation.
 breaking the code is a lot like working a crossword puzzle. You
try a guess and continue to work to substantiate that guess until
you have all the words in place or until you reach a contradiction
 Using brute force attack, the cryptanalyst could try all 26!
permutations of a particular ciphertext message
 We can use our knowledge of language to simplify this problem.
For example, in English, some letters are used more often than
others. The letters E, T, O, and A occur far more often than J, Q,
X, and Z, for example.
 Encryption, even in a simple form, will deter the casual observer.

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Chapter 2
The Cryptographer's Dilemma
 An encryption algorithm must be regular for it to

be algorithmic and for cryptographers to be able
to remember it. Unfortunately, the regularity
gives clues to the cryptanalyst
 There is no solution to this dilemma

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Chapter 2
One-Time Pads
 A one-time pad is sometimes considered the

perfect cipher
 large, nonrepeating set of keys is written on sheets of
paper, glued together into a pad.
 if the keys are 20 characters long and a sender must
transmit a message 300 characters in length
 the sender would tear off the next 15 pages of keys
 The sender would write the keys one at a time above the
letters of the plaintext and
 encipher the plaintext with a prearranged chart (called a
Vigenère tableau) that has all 26 letters in each column, in
some scrambled order

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Chapter 2
One-Time Pads
key
Plaintext
ciphertext
because row M column i is u, row

A column a is a, and so on.
 The one-time pad method has two problems:

 the need for absolute synchronization between
sender and receiver, and
 the need for an unlimited number of keys.

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Chapter 2
Transpositions (Permutations)
 The goal of substitution is confusion

 the encryption method is an attempt to make it
difficult for a cryptanalyst or intruder to determine how
a message and key were transformed into ciphertext.
 A transposition (permutation) is an encryption
in which the letters of the message are
rearranged.
 the cryptography aims for diffusion

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Chapter 2
Columnar Transpositions
 rearrangement of the characters of the plaintext

into columns
 The following set of characters is a five-column
transposition.

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Chapter 2
Columnar Transpositions
 For instance, suppose you want to write the plaintext

message THIS IS A MESSAGE TO SHOW HOW A
COLUMNAR TRANSPOSITION WORKS. We arrange
the letters in five columns
 The resulting ciphertext would then be read down the

columns as

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Chapter 2
Encipherment/Decipherment Complexity
 This cipher involves no additional work beyond arranging

the letters and reading them off again.
 Therefore, the algorithm requires a constant amount of work per
character, and the time needed to apply the algorithm is
proportional to the length of the message.
 we cannot produce output characters until all the message's
characters have been read. This restriction occurs because all
characters must be entered in the first column before output of
the second column can begin, but the first column is not
complete until all characters have been read.
 Thus, the delay associated with this algorithm also depends on
the length of the message, as opposed to the constant delay we
have seen in previous algorithms

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Chapter 2
Digrams, Trigrams, and Other Patterns
 Just as there are characteristic letter frequencies, there

are also characteristic patterns of pairs of adjacent
letters, called digrams.
 Letter pairs such as -re-, -th-, -en-, and -ed- appear very
frequently.

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Chapter 2
Cryptanalysis by Digram Analysis
 The first step in analyzing the transposition is

computing the letter frequencies.
 If we find that in fact all letters appear with their
normal frequencies, we can infer that a transposition
has been performed.
 The problem is to find where in the ciphertext a pair of
adjacent columns lies and where the ends of the
columns are

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Chapter 2
Cryptanalysis by Digram Analysis
 Assume the block being
compared is seven characters
 The first comparison is c1 to c8,
c2 to c9, …, c7 to c14. Then, we
try a distance of eight
characters, and so the window
of comparison shifts and c1 is
compared to c9, c2 to c10, and
continuing..
 For each window position, we
ask two questions. First, do
common digrams appear, and
second, do most of the
Figure 2-5 Moving Comparisons.
digrams look reasonable?

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Chapter 2
Combinations of Approaches
 Substitution and transposition can be considered

as building blocks for encryption.
 A combination of two ciphers is called a product
cipher.
 Product ciphers are typically performed one after
another, as in E2(E1(P,k1), k2)

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Chapter 2
Making "Good" Encryption Algorithms
 What Makes a "Secure" Encryption

Algorithm?
 What does it mean for a cipher to be "good"?
 The meaning of good depends on the intended use of the
cipher
 A cipher to be used by military personnel in the field has
different requirements from one to be used in a secure
installation with substantial computer support
 In this section, we look more closely at the different
characteristics of ciphers

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Chapter 2
Shannon's Characteristics of "Good" Ciphers
 The amount of secrecy needed should determine the

amount of labor appropriate for the encryption and
decryption.
 reiteration of the principle of timeliness from Chapter 1
 The set of keys and the enciphering algorithm should be
free from complexity
 If the process is too complex, it will not be used
 we should restrict neither the choice of keys nor the types of
plaintext on which the algorithm can work
 For instance, an algorithm that works only on plaintext having an equal
number of A's and E's is useless.
 Similarly, it would be difficult to select keys such that the sum of the values of
the letters of the key is a prime number.
 Furthermore, the key must be transmitted, stored, and
remembered
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Chapter 2
 The implementation of the process should be as simple

as possible
 formulated with hand implementation in mind
 A complicated algorithm is prone to error or likely to be forgotten
 With the development and popularity of digital computers,
algorithms far too complex for hand implementation became
feasible
 Still, the issue of complexity is important. People will avoid an
encryption algorithm whose implementation process severely
hinders message transmission
 And a complex algorithm is more likely to be programmed
incorrectly.

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Chapter 2
 Errors in ciphering should not propagate and cause

corruption of further information in the message
 One error early in the process should not throw off the entire
remaining ciphertext
 For example, dropping one letter in a columnar transposition
throws off the entire remaining encipherment
 The size of the enciphered text should be no larger than
the text of the original message
 ciphertext that expands dramatically in size cannot possibly carry
more information than the plaintext
 it gives the cryptanalyst more data from which to infer a pattern
 longer ciphertext implies more space for storage and more time
to communicate

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Chapter 2
Properties of "Trustworthy" Encryption Systems
 When we say that encryption is "commercial grade," or

"trustworthy," we mean that it meets these constraints:
 It is based on sound mathematics
 It has been analyzed by competent experts and found to be
sound
 It has stood the "test of time.“
 Three algorithms are popular in the commercial world
and meet the above criteria: DES (data encryption
standard), RSA (Rivest Shamir Adelman, named after
the inventors), and AES (advanced encryption standard).

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Chapter 2
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption Systems
 Two basic kinds of encryptions: symmetric (also called

"secret key") and asymmetric (also called "public key")
 Symmetric
 One key for enrcyption and decryption
 Usually, the decryption algorithm is closely related to the encryption
one
 Ex., Caesar cipher: encryption: Pi + 3; decryption Ci - 3
 provide a two-way channel to their users
 A and B share a secret key, and they can both encrypt information to send to
the other as well as decrypt information from the other
 the system also provides authentication proof that a message
received was not fabricated by someone other than the declared
sender

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Chapter 2
Symmetric Encryption Systems
 The symmetry of this situation is a major advantage of

this type of encryption
 But, has key distribution problem
 How do A and B obtain their shared secret key?
 In general, n users who want to communicate in pairs need
 n * (n - 1)/2 keys
 By the nature of the public key approach, you can send a

public key in an e-mail message or post it in a public
directory
 Only the corresponding private key, which presumably is kept
private
 So, for all encryption algorithms, key management is a
major issue
 involves storing, safeguarding, and activating keys
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Chapter 2
Stream and Block Ciphers
 Most of the ciphers we have presented so far are

stream ciphers
 convert one symbol of plaintext immediately into a
symbol of ciphertext
 The exception is the columnar transposition cipher
 The transformation depends only on the symbol, the
key, and the control information of the encipherment
algorithm
 skipping a character in
the key during encryption,

affect the encryption of all
future characters

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Chapter 2
Stream and Block Ciphers
 A block cipher encrypts a group of plaintext

symbols as one block
 Ex., The columnar transposition
 entire message is translated as one block
 Block ciphers work on blocks of plaintext and produce
blocks of ciphertext

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Chapter 2
Confusion and Diffusion
 Two additional important concepts are related to

the amount of work required to perform an
encryption
 An algorithm providing good confusion has a
complex functional relationship between the
plaintext/key pair and the ciphertext
 it will take an interceptor a long time to determine the relationship
between plaintext, key, and ciphertext
 Ex1: Caesar cipher is not good for an analyst who deduces the
transformation of a few letters can also predict the transformation of
the remaining letters, with no additional information
 Ex2: one-time pad is good because one plaintext letter can be
transformed to any ciphertext letter at different places in the output

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Chapter 2
Confusion and Diffusion
 Two additional important concepts are related to

the amount of work required to perform an
encryption
 Confusion
 Diffusion: distributing the information from single
plaintext letters over the entire output

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Chapter 2
The Data Encryption Standard (DES)
 developed for the U.S. government

 1976
 intended for use by the general public
 accepted as a cryptographic standard both in the
United States and abroad
 many hardware and software systems have been
designed with the DES
 However, recently its adequacy has been questioned

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Chapter 2
 Overview
 combination of two fundamental building blocks of
encryption: substitution and transposition
 derives its strength from repeated application of these
two techniques
 one on top of the other, for a total of 16 cycles
 Hard to trace a single bit through 16 iterations
 The algorithm begins by encrypting the plaintext as
blocks of 64 bits
 The key is 64 bits long
 in fact it is only 56-bit (the other bits are used to check digits)

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Chapter 2
 Overview
 Leverages the two techniques Shannon identified to
conceal information: confusion and diffusion
 ensuring that the output bits have no obvious relationship to
the input bits and spreading the effect of one plaintext bit to
other bits in the ciphertext
 Substitution provides the confusion, and transposition
provides the diffusion

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Chapter 2
A Cycle in the DES.

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Chapter 2
DES (Cont.)
Types of Permutations.

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Chapter 2
DES (Cont.)
Details of a Cycle.

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Chapter 2
DES (Cont. )

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Chapter 2
 Double and Triple DES

 the DES 56-bit key length is not long enough for some
people to feel comfortable
 Computing power has increased dramatically
 some researchers suggest using a double encryption for
greater secrecy
 Take two keys, k1 and k2
 perform two encryptions, one on top of the other: E(k2, E(k1,m)).
 Does this make the key as powerful as 112-bit key? NO
 the cryptanalyst works plaintext and ciphertext toward each other
 It only becomes 57-bit key
 However, a simple trick does indeed enhance the security of DES
 The so-called triple DES procedure is C = E(k3, E(k2, E(k1,m))).
 This process gives a strength equivalent to a 112-bit key
 differential and linear cryptanalysis (self study)

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Chapter 2
The Advanced Encryption Standards(AES)
 To solve the DES security problems

 Contest to develop a new algorithm
 Rijndael (pronounced RINE dahl) algorithm
 Won the contest and became the AES
 Key lengths are: 128, 192, 256 (and possibly more)
bits
 1999
 the U.S. government has approved AES for protecting
Secret and Top Secret classified documents

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Chapter 2
Public Key Encryption
 In 1976, Diffie and Hellman proposed a new kind

of encryption system
 Each user has two keys:
 One is public and the other is private
 Also, use one to encrypt and the other to decrypt
 In symmetric key system, each pair of users needs a
separate key

64
Chapter 2
Public Key Encryption
 In a public key or asymmetric encryption

system, each user has two keys:
 a public key and a private key.
 The user may publish the public key freely
 The keys operate as inverses
 one key undoes the encryption provided by the other key
 Ex. let kPRIV be a user's private key, and let kPUB be the
corresponding public key
 we can write the relationship as
P = D(kPRIV, E(kPUB, P)) = D(kPUB, E(kPRIV, P))

65
Chapter 2
Rivest Shamir Adelman (RSA) Encryption
 Public key system

 RSA has been the subject of extensive
cryptanalysis: no serious flaws have yet been
found
 Based on an underlying hard problem
 Determining the prime factors of a large number
 An area of mathematics known as number theory
 mathematicians study properties of numbers such as their
prime factors
 Operates with arithmetic mod n

66
Chapter 2
 The two keys used in RSA, d and e, are used for

decryption and encryption
 They are actually interchangeable
 Either can be chosen as the public key (the other must be
kept private)
 P = E(D(P)) = D(E(P))
 Any plaintext block P is encrypted as Pe mod n
 factoring Pe to uncover the encrypted plaintext is
difficult
 legitimate receiver who knows d simply computes
(Pe)d mod n = P and recovers P without having to
factor Pe.
67
Chapter 2
 Here is how it works
 take two large primes, p and q, and compute their product n = pq
 n is called the modulus
 Choose a number, e, less than n and relatively prime to (p-1)(q-1)
 i.e., e and (p-1)(q-1) have no common factors except 1
 Find another number d such that (ed - 1) is divisible by (p-1)(q-1)
 The values e and d are called the public and private exponents, respectively.
 The public key is the pair (n, e); the private key is (n, d).
 The factors p and q may be destroyed or kept with the private key.
 It is currently difficult to obtain the private key d from the public key (n, e).
 If one could factor n into p and q, then one could obtain the private key d.
 Example: Suppose Alice wants to send a message m to Bob. Alice
creates the ciphertext c by exponentiating: c = me mod n, where e
and n are Bob's public key. She sends c to Bob. To decrypt, Bob also
exponentiates: m = cd mod n; the relationship between e and d
ensures that Bob correctly recovers m. Since only Bob knows d, only
Bob can decrypt this message.
68
Chapter 2
RSA Example
 Choose p = 3 and q = 11
 Compute n = p * q = 3 * 11 = 33
 Compute φ(n) = (p - 1) * (q - 1) = 2 * 10 = 20
 the number of positive integers less than n that are co-prime to n
 i.e., no common factors with n except 1
 1 is included
 Choose e such that 1 < e < φ(n) and e and n are co-prime. Let e = 7
 Compute a value for d such that (d * e) % φ(n) = 1. One solution is d
= 3 [(3 * 7) % 20 = 1]
 Public key is (e, n) => (7, 33)
 Private key is (d, n) => (3, 33)
 The encryption of m = 2 is c = 27 % 33 = 29
 The decryption of c = 29 is m = 293 % 33 = 2

69
Chapter 2
 http://www.rsa.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2214
 http://www.rsa.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2189

70
Chapter 2
The Uses of Encryption
 Cryptographic Hash Functions

 Key Exchange
 Digital Signatures
 Certificates

71
Chapter 2
The Uses of Encryption
 Encryption implements protected communications

channels
 it can also be used for other duties/applications
 Cryptographic Hash Functions, Key Exchange, Digital Signatures,
Certificates
 Public key algorithms are useful only for specialized
tasks
 very slow; take 10,000 times as long to perform as a symmetric
encryption
 underlying modular exponentiation depends on multiplication and division
 slower than the bit operations (addition, exclusive OR, substitution, and
shifting) on which symmetric algorithms are based
 symmetric encryption is the cryptographers' "workhorse," and public key
encryption is reserved for specialized, infrequent uses, where slow operation
is not a continuing problem

72
Chapter 2
Cryptographic Hash Functions

73
Chapter 2
Cryptographic Hash Functions
 The most widely used cryptographic hash functions are

 MD4, MD5 (where MD stands for Message Digest)
 MD5 is an improved version of MD4
 Any message will have 128-bit digest
 SHA/SHS (Secure Hash Algorithm or Standard).
 it produces a 160-bit digest
 http://md5-hash-online.waraxe.us
 http://sha1-hash-online.waraxe.us/
 cryptanalysis attacks on SHA, MD4, and MD5

 For SHA, the attack is to find two plaintexts that produce the
same hash digest (collision)
 263 steps, far short of the 280 steps that would be expected of a 160-bit
hash function

74
Chapter 2
Birthday Attack
 In probability theory, the birthday problem or birthday paradox
concerns the probability that, in a set of n randomly chosen people,
some pair of them will have the same birthday.
 By the pigeonhole principle, the probability reaches 100% when the
number of people reaches 367 (since there are 366 possible
birthdays, including February 29).
 However, 99% probability is reached with just 57 people, and 50%
probability with 23 people.
 These conclusions are based on the assumption that each day of
the year (except February 29) is equally probable for a birthday.
 The mathematics behind this problem led to a well-known
cryptographic attack called the birthday attack, which uses this
probabilistic model to reduce the complexity of cracking a hash
function.

75
Chapter 2
Birthday Attack
 A list of 23 people, comparing the birthday of the

first person on the list to the others allows 22
chances for a matching birthday, the second
person on the list to the others allows 21
chances for a matching birthday, third person
has 20 chances, and so on. Hence total chances
are: 22+21+20+....+1 = 253, so comparing every
person to all of the others allows 253 distinct
chances (combinations): in a group of 23 people
there are (23 * 22) / 2 = 253 pairs.

76
Chapter 2
Key Exchange
 We talk about symmetric keys here

 The problem is almost circular: To establish an
encrypted session, you need an encrypted
means to exchange keys.

77
Chapter 2
Key Exchange
 Public key cryptography can help

 To see how, suppose S and R want to derive a shared
symmetric key
 kPRIV-S, kPUB-S, kPRIV-R, and kPUB-R, are the private and public keys
for S and R, respectively
 S chooses any symmetric key K
 S sends E(kPRIV-S,K) to R
 R takes S's public key, removes the encryption, and obtains
K
 Ooops, any eavesdropper who can get S's public key can also obtain K
 let S send E(kPUB-R, K) to R. Then, only R can decrypt K
 Ooops, R has no assurance that K came from S
 The solution is for S to send to R:
E(kPUB-R, E(kPRIV-S, K))

78
Chapter 2
Key Exchange

79
Chapter 2
Key Exchange
 Another key exchange approach

 Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol
 S and R use some simple arithmetic to exchange a secret
 They agree on a field size n and a starting number g
 they can communicate these numbers in the clear

 Each thinks up a secret number, say, s and r.
 S sends to R gs and R sends to S gr
 S computes (gr)s and R computes (gs)r ,which are the same,
so grs = gsr becomes their shared secret
 computations are done over a field of integers mod n (omitted for
simplicity)
http://dkerr.home.mindspring.com/diffie_hellman_calc.html
 Diffie-Hellman, however, does NOT provide authentication
 You can not be sure if you are talking to the right person

80
Chapter 2
Digital Signatures
 A digital signature is a protocol that produces

the same effect as a real signature:
 It is a mark that only the sender can make
 but other people can easily recognize as belonging to
the sender

81
Chapter 2
Digital Signatures
 Two conditions
 It must be unforgeable:
 If person P signs message M with signature S(P,M), it is
impossible for anyone else to produce the pair [M, S(P,M)]
 It must be authentic: If a person R receives the pair
[M, S(P,M)] purportedly from P, R can check that the
signature is really from P
 Only P could have created this signature, and the signature is
firmly attached to M

82
Chapter 2
Digital Signatures

83
Chapter 2
Digital Signatures
 Two more properties

 It is not alterable. After being transmitted, M cannot be
changed by S, R, or an interceptor.
 It is not reusable. A previous message presented
again will be instantly detected by R.

84
Chapter 2
Digital Signatures
 Public Key Protocol

 ideally suited to digital signatures.
 E: use the public key in transformation
 D: use the private key in transformation

85
Chapter 2
Certificates
 A public key and user's identity are bound together in a

certificate, which is then signed by someone called a
certificate authority, certifying the accuracy of the
binding.

86
Chapter 2
Certificates
 The algorithms to generate a matched pair of
public and private keys are publicly known, and
software that does it is widely available.
 So if Alice wanted to use a public key cipher, she
could generate her own pair of public and private
keys, keep the private key hidden, and publicize
the public key.
 But how can she publicize her public key—
assert that it belongs to her—in such a way that
other participants can be sure it really belongs to
her?

87
Chapter 2
Certificates
 A complete scheme for certifying bindings between
public keys and identities— what key belongs to who—is
called a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI).
 A PKI starts with the ability to verify identities and bind
them to keys out of band. By “out of band,” we mean
something outside the network and the computers that
comprise it, such as in the following scenarios.
 If Alice and Bob are individuals who know each other,
then they could get together in the same room and Alice
could give her public key to Bob directly, perhaps on a
business card.

88
Chapter 2
Certificates
 If Bob is an organization, Alice the individual
could present conventional identification,
perhaps involving a photograph or fingerprints.
 If Alice and Bob are computers owned by the
same company, then a system administrator
could configure Bob with Alice’s public key.
 A digitally signed statement of a public key
binding is called a public key certificate, or
simply a certificate

89
Chapter 2
Certificates
 One of the major standards for certificates is
known as X.509. This standard leaves a lot of
details open, but specifies a basic structure. A
certificate clearly must include
 the identity of the entity being certified
 the public key of the entity being certified
 the identity of the signer
 the digital signature
 a digital signature algorithm identifier (which
cryptographic hash and which cipher)

90
Chapter 2
Certificates
 Certification Authorities
 A certification authority or certificate authority (CA) is
an entity claimed (by someone) to be trustworthy for
verifying identities and issuing public key certificates.
 There are commercial CAs, governmental CAs, and
even free CAs.
 To use a CA, you must know its own key. You can
learn that CA’s key, however, if you can obtain a chain
of CA-signed certificates that starts with a CA whose
key you already know.
 Then you can believe any certificate signed by that
new CA

91

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Chapter 2 - Elementary Cryptography

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Security in Computing, 4th Ed, Pfleeger

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because row M column i is u, row