KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA

MORADABAD
SCIENCE PROJECT
Submitted By: Submitted to:
Sarthak Gupta Mr. S.K.Dixit
Class XA
Roll No. 6
Geometrical Optics
 Units
• The Reflection of Light
• Forming Images with a Plane Mirror
• Spherical Mirrors
• Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation
• The Refraction of Light
• Ray Tracing for Lenses
• The Thin-Lens Equation
• Dispersion and the Rainbow
Refraction of light
 The Reflection of Light
If a stone is dropped into a pond, circular
waves emanate from the point where it landed.
Rays, perpendicular to the wave fronts, give
the direction in which the waves propagate.
 The Reflection of Light
As one moves farther from a point wave source,
the wave fronts become more nearly flat.
Reflection
 The Reflection of Light
The law of reflection states that the angle of
incidence equals the angle of reflection:
 The Reflection of Light

Reflection from a smooth surface is called

specular reflection; if the surface is rough, it is
diffuse reflection.
 Forming Images with a Plane Mirror
Light reflected from the flower and vase hits the
mirror. Obeying the law of reflection, it enters
the eye. The eye interprets the ray as having
had a straight-line path, and sees the image
behind the mirror.
 Forming Images with a Plane Mirror
Properties of Mirror Images Produced by Plane
Mirrors:
• A mirror image is upright, but appears reversed
right to left.
• A mirror image appears to be the same
distance behind the mirror that the object is in
front of the mirror.
• A mirror image is the same size as the object.
 Forming Images with a Plane Mirror
A corner reflector reflects light parallel to the
incident ray, no matter the incident angle.
 Spherical Mirrors
A spherical mirror has the shape of a section of
a sphere. If the outside is mirrored, it is convex;
if the inside is mirrored, it is concave.
 Spherical Mirrors
Spherical mirrors have a central axis (a radius of
the sphere) and a center of curvature (the center
of the sphere).
 Spherical Mirrors
Parallel rays hitting a spherical mirror come
together at the focal point (or appear to have
come from the focal point, if the mirror is
convex).
 Spherical Mirrors

This is a ray diagram for finding the focal point

of a concave mirror.
 Spherical Mirrors

For a convex mirror, the focal length is

negative, as the rays do not go through the
focal point. The opposite is true for a concave
mirror.
 Spherical Mirrors
We have made the assumption here that the rays
do not hit the mirror very far from the principal
axis. If they do, the image is blurred; this is
called spherical aberration, and can be remedied
by using a parabolic mirror instead.
 Spherical Mirrors

When the Hubble

Space Telescope
was first launched,
its optics were
marred by spherical
aberration. This was
fixed with corrective
optics.
 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation

We use three principal rays in finding the image

produced by a concave mirror.
• The parallel ray (P ray) reflects through the
focal point.
• The focal ray (F ray) reflects parallel to the
axis.
• The center-of-curvature ray (C ray) reflects
back along its incoming path.
 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation
These three rays are illustrated here.
 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation
This image shows how these three rays are used
to find the image formed by a convex mirror. The
image is located where the projections of the
three rays cross. The size of the image can also
be determined.
 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation
The process is similar for a concave mirror,
although there are different results depending
on where the object is placed.
 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation
We derive the mirror equation using the ray
diagrams:
 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation

Using the similar triangles and the fact that f

= ½ R, we get the mirror equation:

Here, do is the distance from the mirror to the

object, di is the distance from the mirror to the
image, and f is the focal length.
Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation
 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation

We can also find the magnification:

 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation
Here are the sign conventions for concave and
convex mirrors:
 The Refraction of Light
Light moves at different speeds through
different media. When it travels from one
medium into another, the change in speed
causes the ray to bend.
 The Refraction of Light
The angle of refraction is related to the different
speeds:

The speed of light in a medium is given by the

index of refraction of that medium:
 The Refraction of Light

Here are some typical

indices of refraction:
 The Refraction of Light
We can now write the angle of refraction in
terms of the index of refraction:
 The Refraction of Light

Basic properties of refraction:

 The Refraction of Light
Refraction can make objects immersed in water
appear broken, and can create mirages.
 The Refraction of Light

If light enters a medium of lower index of

refraction, it will be bent away from the normal.
If the angle of incidence is large enough, the
angle of refraction is 90°; at larger incident
angles the light will be totally reflected.
 The Refraction of Light
This is called total internal reflection, and the
incident angle at which the angle of refraction is
90° is called the critical angle, C. Total internal
reflection is used in some binoculars and in
optical fibers.
 The Refraction of Light
There is a special angle called Brewster’s angle;
light reflected at this angle is totally polarized.

Reflected light is
completely polarized
when the reflected and
refracted beams are at
right angles to one
another. The direction of
polarization is parallel
to the reflecting surface.
 Ray Tracing for Lenses
Lenses are used to focus light and form images.
There are a variety of possible types; we will
consider only the symmetric ones, the double
concave and the double convex.
 Ray Tracing for Lenses
If we think of a convex lens as consisting of
prisms, we can see how light going through it
converges at a focal point (assuming the lens
is properly shaped).
 Ray Tracing for Lenses

The three principal rays for lenses are similar to

those for mirrors:
• The P ray—or parallel ray—approaches the lens
parallel to its axis.
• The F ray is drawn toward (concave) or through
(convex) the focal point.
• The midpoint ray (M ray) goes through the
middle of the lens. Assuming the lens is thin
enough, it will not be deflected. This is the thin-
lens approximation.
1 Convex and concave lenses
Convex lens - thicker at the centre than at the
edge.
1 Convex and concave lenses
Concave lens - thinner at the centre than at the
edge.
1 Convex and concave lenses
a Converging or Diverging?

convex lens concave lens

(converging lens) (diverging lens)
1 Convex and concave lenses
a Converging or Diverging?

convex lens concave lens

(converging lens) (diverging lens)
1 Convex and concave lenses
a Converging lens
bend the light
inwards

You may remember ‘converging’ as

‘concentrating’.
1 Convex and concave lenses
a Diverging lens
bend the light
outwards

You may remember ‘diverging’ as

‘dividing’.
1 Convex and concave lenses
a Converging or diverging?
Recall that light travels more slowly in glass than
in air.

converges or diverges
Light converges divergesas some parts of the
wavefronts lag behind.
 b Key features of lenses
• Parallel rays are refracted inwards.
principal
focus

Refracted rays meet at a point called the

principal focus F.
Centre of the lens is called the optical centre C.

optical centre
• The distance of F from C is the focal length
f of the lens.

C F

focal length
• A convex lens has 2 principal foci.
• 1 on each side

F' C F
principal axis

• The line through the optical centre and 2

foci is called the principal axis.
• Parallel rays are refracted outwards.

principal
focus

• Refracted rays appear to spread from a

point called the principal focus F.
• Centre of the lens is called the optical
centre C.

optical centre
• The distance of F from C is the focal length
f of the lens.

F C

focal
length
• A concave lens has 2 principal foci.
• 1 on each side

F' C F
principal axis

• The line through the optical centre and 2

foci is called the principal axis.
Seeing images formed by a lens

Video
2 Image formation by a lens

When the light from a point of an object

enters our eyes,
we can see the point.

O
I
screen
 2 Image formation by a lens

a Real images
Light
Light rays
rays converge
converge to
to aa point.
point.

O I
 2 Image formation by a lens
Image
Image can
can be
be captured
captured by
by aa screen.
screen.

Hence
Hence called
called ‘real’.
‘real’.

O I

screen
 2 Image formation by a lens

b Virtual images
Light
Light rays
rays diverge
diverge from
from aa point.
point.

I
O
No
No rays
rays actually
actually come
come from
from the
the image.
image.
Hence
Hence called
called ‘virtual’.
‘virtual’. convex lens
2 Image formation by a lens

b Virtual images
Light
Light rays
rays diverge
diverge from
from aa point.
point.

I
O

concave lens
Since only convex lenses converge light rays,
real images can only be formed by convex
lenses.

O I

screen
 Light rays through lenses

Video Video Video

Simulation Simulation
 3 Graphical construction of image formation

a Construction rules
In ray diagrams, we use symbols to
represent lenses.

convex lenses concave lenses

Construction rules for convex lenses
Rule 1
A ray parallel to the principal axis...

F
C

…is refracted through F.

Construction rules for convex lenses
Rule 2
A ray passing through F'...

F' F
C

…is refracted parallel to the principal axis.

Construction rules for convex lenses
Rule 3
A ray passing through C...

F' F
C

…travels straight on.

Construction rules for concave lenses
Rule 1
A ray parallel to the principal axis...

F' C F

…is refracted so that it appears to come

from F'.
Construction rules for concave lenses
Rule 2
A ray directed towards F...

F' C F

…is refracted parallel to the principal axis.

Construction rules for concave lenses
Rule 3
A ray directed towards C...

F' C F

…travels straight on.

 3 Graphical construction of image formation

b Drawing ray diagram

Click the following to see how to draw ray
diagrams.
convex lens

concave lens
3 Graphical construction of image
formation
c Magnification

F I
O F' C

magnification m
= height of image (image size)
height of object (object size)
3 Graphical construction of image
formation
u v

F I
O F' C

Also,
image distance  m = v
magnification m =
object distance u
Studying images formed by a convex lens

Video
4 Position and nature of image
Convex lens refracts the rays to form an inverted
image on a plane at the principal focus.

convex lens focal plane

Such a plane is called the focal plane.

We can find the position and nature of image by
drawing ray diagram

constru
ray ction

F' C F
I

∴ The 2 parallel rays also converge to I.

4 Position and nature of image

Images formed by a convex lens

I F 2F
2F' F' C

object: at infinity
image: at F , real, inverted and diminished
 F 2F
I
O 2F' C
F'

object: beyond 2F ’
image: between F and 2F
real, inverted and diminished
 F 2F
O I
2F' F' C

object: at 2F ’
image: at 2F
real, inverted and same size
 F 2FI
O
C
2F' F'

object: between F ’ and 2F ’

image: beyond 2F
real, inverted and magnified
 F 2F
O
C
2F' F'

object: at F ’
image: at infinity
I F 2F
O
2F' F' C

object: < F ’
image: on the same side as the object
virtual, erect and magnified
Images formed by a convex lens

Simulation Simulation
4 Position and nature of image

Images formed by a concave

lens

F 2F
I
2F' F' C
object: at infinity
image: at F’
 O F 2F
2F' F' I C

object: within 2F ’ (or near object)

image: between F ’ and 2F ’, on the same
side of object
virtual, erect and diminished
Images formed by a concave
lens

Simulation Simulation
 Example 6
An object is positioned between F’ and 2F’ of
convex lens. Complete the rays.

O 2F
2F' F’’ F

(a)Locate the image.

(b)Is it a virtual or a real image?
Example
(a) 6
O 2F
I
2F' F’’ F

(b)It is a real image.

 Example 7
An object is positioned between F ’ and 2F ’ from
concave lens. Complete the rays.

2F' F’’ F 2F

(a)Locate the image.

(b)Is it a virtual or a real image?
Example
(a) 7
O I

2F' F’’ F 2F

(b)It is a real image.

 Example 8
An object of height 5 cm is placed at 15 cm from
a convex lens of focal length 10 cm.

Find the position and magnification of the image.

O F 2F
F' C 5 cm
5 cm
 Example 8
height of image = 10 cm
height of object = 5 cm
5 cm

5 cm
O F 2F I
F' C

10 cm
m = =2
5 cm
 Example 8
Alternatively, image distance = 30 cm
object distance = 15 cm
5 cm

5 cm
O F 2F I
F' C

30 cm
m = =2
15 cm
 Dispersion and the Rainbow
The index of refraction varies slightly with the
frequency of light; in general, the higher the
frequency, the higher the index of refraction.

This means that

refracted light is
“spread out” in a
rainbow of colors; this
phenomenon is known
as dispersion.
 Dispersion and the Rainbow
Rainbows are created by the dispersion of light
as it refracts in a rain drop.
 Dispersion and the Rainbow
As the drop falls, all the colors of the rainbow
arrive at the eye.
 Dispersion and the Rainbow
Sometimes a faint secondary arc can be seen.
 Summary
• A wave front is a surface along which the wave
phase is constant. Rays, perpendicular to the
wave fronts, indicate the direction of
propagation.
• The angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection.
• The image formed by a plane mirror is upright,
but appears reversed left to right; appears to
be the same distance behind the mirror as the
object is in front of it; and is the same size as
the object.
 Summary Contd..
• Spherical mirrors have spherical reflecting
surfaces. A concave mirror is curved inward,
and a convex one outward.
• Focal length of a convex mirror:
• Focal length of a concave mirror:
• An image is real if light passes through it,
virtual if it does not.
• Mirror equation:
 Summary Contd…

• Magnification:

• Refraction is the change in direction of light

due to a change in speed.
• The index of refraction gives the speed of light
in a medium:
 Summary Contd…
• Snell’s law:
• Light entering a medium of higher n is bent
towards the normal; light entering a medium of
lower n is bent away from the normal.
• When light enters a medium of lower n, there is
a critical angle beyond which the light will be
totally reflected.
 Summary Contd….

• Magnification:

• The index of refraction varies with frequency;

different frequencies of light are bent different
amounts. This is called dispersion.
Thank You