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From Gene To Protein: How Genes Work
From Gene To Protein: How Genes Work
to Protein
SLIDE SHOW BY KIM FOGLIA (modified)
All Blue edged slides are Kim’s
(hyperlinks may have been added)
How Genes
Work
AP Biology 2007-2008
What do genes code for?
How does DNA code for cells & bodies?
how are cells and bodies made from the
instructions in DNA
p ti on ti on
c ri l a
trans trans
DNA RNA protein trait
DNA gets
all the glory,
replication but proteins do
all the work!
AP Biology
Metabolism taught us about genes
Inheritance of metabolic diseases
suggested that genes coded for enzymes
each disease (phenotype) is caused by
metabolic pathway
disease disease disease disease
A
AP Biology enzyme 1
B
enzyme 2
C
enzyme 3
D
enzyme 4
E
1941 | 1958
Beadle & Tatum
one gene : one enzyme hypothesis
George Beadle
Edward Tatum
"for their discovery that genes act by
AP Biology regulating definite chemical events"
Beadle & Tatum X rays or ultraviolet light
Wild-type
Neurospora create mutations
Minimal asexual
spores Growth on
medium complete
medium
positive control
spores
Select one of
the spores
a
a a
a a
a
ribosome
trait
AP Biology
Transcription
from
DNA nucleic acid language
to
RNA nucleic acid language
AP Biology 2007-2008
RNA
ribose sugar
N-bases
uracil instead of thymine
U : A
C : G
single stranded
lots of RNAs
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, siRNA…
transcription
DNA
AP Biology RNA
3 KINDS OF RNA HELP WITH INFO TRANSFER FOR
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
rRNA and t-RNA images from Image from: Biology; Miller and Levine; Pearson Education publishing as Prentice Hall; 2006
mRNA image from http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/tmp/labeling/1140654_dyn.gif
3 KINDS OF RNA HELP WITH INFO TRANSFER FOR
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
ANTICODON sequence
matches CODON on mRNA
to add correct
amino acids during
protein synthesis
& transcription
factors
Enhancer region
binding site far
upstream of gene
turns transcription
AP Biology
on HIGH
•Transcription
Transcription Factors
Initiation complex
transcription factors bind to promoter region
suite of proteins which bind to DNA
hormones?
turn on or off transcription
trigger the binding of RNA polymerase to DNA
AP Biology
Matching bases of DNA & RNA
A
Match RNA bases to DNA C U
G
bases on one of the DNA G A
strands U G
C
U U
C G
A
A C
U
A
AG
C
U
5' RNA
A 3'
A C C polymerase G
T G G T A C A G C T A G T C A T CG T A C CG T
AP Biology
Eukaryotic genes have junk!
Eukaryotic genes are not continuous
exons = the real gene introns
expressed / coding DNA come out!
introns = the junk
inbetween sequence
eukaryotic DNA
exon = coding (expressed) sequence
AP Biology
mRNA’s require EDITING before use
Image by Riedell
mRNA splicing
Post-transcriptional processing
eukaryotic mRNA needs work after transcription
primary transcript = pre-mRNA
mRNA splicing
edit out introns
Richard
Roberts Philip
Sharp adenovirus
CSHL
MIT common cold
beta-thalassemia
AP Biology
Splicing must be accurate
No room for mistakes!
a single base added or lost throws off the
reading frame
AUGCGGCTATGGGUCCGAUAAGGGCCAU
AUGCGGUCCGAUAAGGGCCAU
AUG|CGG|UCC|GAU|AAG|GGC|CAU
Met|Arg|Ser|Asp|Lys|Gly|His
AUGCGGCTATGGGUCCGAUAAGGGCCAU
AUGCGGGUCCGAUAAGGGCCAU
AUG|CGG|GUC|CGA|UAA|GGG|CCA|U
AP Biology Met|Arg|Val|Arg|STOP|
Whoa! I think
we just broke
RNA splicing enzymes a biological “rule”!
snRNPs
snRNPs
small nuclear RNA snRNA
proteins exon intron exon
several snRNPs
recognize splice spliceosome
site sequence 5' 3'
cut & paste gene
lariat
No,
not smurfs! 5' 3'
“snurps”
exon exon
mature mRNA excised
AP Biology 5' 3' intron
PROCESSING RNA mRNA EDITING
SPLICEOSOMES
RIBOZYMES-RNA molecules
that function as enzymes
(In some organisms pre-RNA
can remove its own introns)
Alternative splicing
Alternative mRNAs produced from same gene
when is an intron not an intron…
different segments treated as exons
Starting to get
hard to
define a gene!
AP Biology
More post-transcriptional processing
Need to protect mRNA on its trip from
nucleus to cytoplasm
enzymes in cytoplasm attack mRNA
protect the ends of the molecule
add 5 GTP cap
add poly-A tail
longer tail, mRNA lasts longer: produces more protein
A tai l
-
' p oly 3'
3 A
A
A
A A
mRNA A’s
cap 250
50-
5' P P
5' G P
AP Biology
a
From gene to protein a a
a
nucleus cytoplasm a
a
a
a
a
a
a
transcription translation a a
DNA mRNA protein
a
a
a
a
a a
a a
a
ribosome
trait
AP Biology
Translation
from
nucleic acid language
to
amino acid language
AP Biology 2007-2008
How does mRNA code for proteins?
DNA TACGCACATTTACGTACGCGG
4 ATCG
AUGCGUGUAAAUGCAUGCGCC
mRNA
4 AUCG
?
protein Met Arg Val Asn Ala Cys Ala
20
How can you code for 20 amino acids
AP Biology with only 4 nucleotide bases (A,U,G,C)?
mRNA codes for proteins in triplets
DNA TACGCACATTTACGTACGCGG
codon
AUGCGUGUAAAUGCAUGCGCC
mRNA
?
protein
AP Biology
Met Arg Val Asn Ala Cys Ala
1960 | 1968
Cracking the code Nirenberg & Khorana
Crick
determined 3-letter (triplet) codon system
WHYDIDTHEREDBATEATTHEFATRAT
Nirenberg (47) & Khorana (17)
determined mRNA–amino acid match
added fabricated mRNA to test tube of
Har Khorana
AP Biology
The code
Code for ALL life!
strongest support
for a common origin
for all life
Code is redundant
several codons for
each amino acid
3rd base “wobble”
Why is the
wobble good?
Start codon
AUG
methionine
Stop codons
AP Biology UGA, UAA, UAG
How are the codons matched to
amino acids?
3 5
DNA TACGCACATTTACGTACGCGG
5 3
AUGCGUGUAAAUGCAUGCGCC
mRNA
3 5 codon
UAC
tRNA GCA
Met
CAU anti-codon
amino Arg
acid Val
AP Biology
a
From gene to protein a a
a
nucleus cytoplasm a
a
a
a
a
a
a
transcription translation a a
DNA mRNA protein
a
a
a
a
a a
a a
a
ribosome
aa
trait
AP Biology
Transfer RNA structure
“Clover leaf” structure
anticodon on “clover leaf” end
amino acid attached on 3 end
AP Biology
Loading tRNA
Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase
enzyme which bonds amino acid to tRNA
bond requires energy
ATP AMP
bond is unstable
so it can release amino acid at ribosome easily
C
=O
O
activating
enzyme
tRNATrp AC C
anticodon
UGG mRNA
tryptophan attached
AP Biology to tRNATrp tRNATrp binds to UGG
condon of mRNA
Protein synthesis/quiz
Ribosomes
Facilitate coupling of
tRNA anticodon to
mRNA codon
organelle or enzyme?
Structure
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) & proteins
2 subunits
large
small E P A
AP Biology
Protein synthesis 2
Ribosomes
A site (aminoacyl-tRNA site)
holds tRNA carrying next amino acid to
be added to chain
P site (peptidyl-tRNA site)
holds tRNA carrying growing
polypeptide chain Met
Building a polypeptide
Initiation
brings together mRNA, ribosome
subunits, initiator tRNA
Elongation
adding amino acids based on
codon sequence
Termination
end codon 3 2 1
Leu Val release
Ser factor
Met Met
Met Met Leu Leu Leu Ala
Trp
tRNA
C
A
U AC UAC GAC A U A C GA C U AC G A C
5' CUGAA U 5'
A U G CU G AU 5' A U G C UG AAU 5'
AU G C U G
AA U 3'
mRNA A U G 3' 3' 3' A CC
U GG U A A
E P A 3'
AP Biology
Destinations:
Protein targeting
secretion
nucleus
Signal peptide mitochondria
chloroplasts
address label
cell membrane
cytoplasm
start of a secretory pathway
etc…
AP Biology
RNA polymerase
DNA
mature mRNA
aminoacyl tRNA
poly-A tail synthetase
5'
tRNA
small ribosomal subunit
E P A
AP Biology ribosome
The Transcriptional unit (gene?)
enhancer translation translation
1000+b
start exons stop
20-30b
3' TAC
transcriptional unit (gene) ACT 5'
RNA
TATA
polymerase DNA
DNA
UTR UTR
introns
promoter transcription transcription
start stop
5' 3'
pre-mRNA
5' 3'
AP Biology GTP mature mRNA AAAAAAAA
Bacterial chromosome
Protein
Transcription
Synthesis in mRNA
Prokaryotes
Psssst…
no nucleus!
Cell
membrane
Cell wall
AP Biology 2007-2008
Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote genes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
DNA in cytoplasm DNA in nucleus
circular linear
chromosome chromosomes
naked DNA DNA wound on
histone proteins
no introns introns vs. exons
introns
come out!
intron = noncoding (inbetween) sequence
eukaryotic
DNA
exon = coding (expressed) sequence
AP Biology
Translation in Prokaryotes
Transcription & translation are simultaneous
in bacteria
DNA is in
cytoplasm
no mRNA
editing
ribosomes
read mRNA
as it is being
transcribed
AP Biology
SEE PROCESSING VIDEO
Translation: prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes
Differences between prokaryotes &
eukaryotes
time & physical separation between
processes
takes eukaryote ~1 hour
from DNA to protein
no RNA processing
AP Biology
COMPLETING PROTEINS
POLYRIBOSOMES (POLYSOMES)
Numerous ribosomes translate same mRNA
at same time
3-D folding (1’, 2’, 3’ structure)
Chaparonins
POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS
Some amino acids modified by addition of
sugars, lipids, phosphate groups, etc
Enzymes can modify ends, cleave into pieces
join polypeptide strands (4’ structure)
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/pancreas/insulin.html
ARCHIBALD GARROD
1902
1st to suggest genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes that catalyze specific
chemical reactions
Postulated that the symptoms of an inherited disease are due to inability to make a
specific enzyme
Coined term “inborn errors of metabolism” to describe such diseases
Beginning of “One gene-one enzyme” hypothesis
ALCAPTONURIA- “black urine” disease- defect in enzyme that breaks down amino acid
tyrosine
http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/w/x/wxm15/Online/Molecular%20Biology/media/phenylalanine.gif
http://www.nature.com/bjp/journal/v147/n1s/images/0706466f5.jpg
Mutations
Point mutations
single base change
base-pair
substitution
silent mutation
no amino acid change
redundancy in code
missense
change amino acid
nonsense
change to stop codon
Frameshift
shift in the reading frame
changes everything
“downstream”
insertions
adding base(s)
deletions
losing base(s)
More damaging at
beginning of gene than
at end
AP Biology
Any Questions??
What color would a smurf turn
if he held his breath?
AP Biology 2007-2008