Unit seven

Occupational Health and Safety

Chapter objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

• Define occupational health and related terms

• Discuss the scope and goal of occupational health

• Identify the occupational health hazards in work place

• Explain the effects of occupational hazard

• Mention evaluation and control method of occupational hazard

 Introduction

 A person spends only about one third of the time at work and

the rest at home and in the community

 Work places needed special visions with regard to various health

hazards that may emerge due to the uniqueness of the work place,
i.e. industries, factories, agricultural undertakings etc.

 Environmental health services at work places are an important

components of occupational health

2
 ....cont'd

Occupational health – is defined as “the aspect of public health,

which deals with people at work.”

According to WHO (1995), occupational safety and health can be

defined as a multidisciplinary activity aiming at:

Protection and promotion of the health of workers by eliminating

occupational factors and conditions hazardous to health and safety at

work.

Enhancement of physical, mental and social well-being of workers

and support for the development and maintenance of their working
capacity as well as professional and social development at work.
3
 ....cont'd
 Development and promotion of sustainable work environments and work
organizations
Occupational health must need attention, why ???
• Moral: unacceptability of putting health and safety of people at risk
• Legal: the preventive (enforcement), punitive (through criminal
sanctions), and compensatory effects of law
• Economic: direct and indirect costs associated with incidents
and/or unhealthy workplaces and their impact on the organization
(includes insured and un-insured costs)

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 The goal of occupational health

 To reduce industrial accidents

 To prevent occupational hazards/ diseases

 To achieve maximum human efficiency and machine
efficiency
 To reduce sick absenteeism

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 The objectives of occupational health

 To maintain and promote the physical, mental and social well

being of the workers
 To prevent occupational diseases and injuries
   To adapt the work place and work environment to the needs
of the workers i.e. application of ergonomics principle
 It should be preventive rather than curative

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 Scope of occupational health

It includes prevention and control of hazards, curative and

rehabilitative programs. Such as:

1) Establishment of sound environmental conditions

2) Organization of health services including first aid

3) Rehabilitation of those that have been injured

4) Health promotion in the work environment

5) Prevention, diagnosis and treatment of occupation related diseases and

accidents.

Generally, occupational health encompasses the study of both acute and

chronic conditions emanating from hazards in the work environment as well
as in the out door environments 7
 Elements of work environment/Occupational setting

1. The worker
2. The tools
3. The process
4. The work environment

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Classifications of occupational health and safety hazards

Hazard: is potential of an environmental agent to harm the health

of certain individuals if the exposure level is high enough and/or if
other conditions apply.

 Physical hazard: which can adversely affect health, include noise,

vibration, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation (sound waves,
visible light, and microwaves.), heat and other unhealthy
microclimatic conditions.

 Mechanical hazards: Factors include unprotected machinery,

unsafe structures at the workplace and dangerous unprotected
tools are among the most prevalent hazards in both industrialized
and developing countries.
9
 ....cont'd

 They affect the health of a high proportion of the workforce

 Most accidents could be prevented by applying relatively simple

measures in the work environment, working practices, and safety
systems and ensuring appropriate behavioral and management
practices

Chemical Hazards: are present when a person is exposed to a harmful

chemical at work. The chemicals can be in the form of gases, solids
or liquids.

 Exposure to chemicals could cause acute health effects (an

immediate or rapid onset) if taken in large quantities in a single dose;
10
 ....cont'd

Chronic health effects (long-term effects on health) if the chemical

taken in small doses over an extended time.

Ways of exposure

 Through inhaling; the vapors, gases or dusts

 Through skin contact with solvents, acids and alkalis; and

 Through ingestion of unknown chemicals with food and water.

Chemical Hazards are dependent on their :-

• Amount • Time of exposure • Age • Sex

• Concentration • Mode of entry to the body

• Resistance of the exposed workers • Health status 11

 ....cont'd
The effects of some occupational agents
1. Asphyxiation
 Asphyxia- is a condition arising when the body is deprived of
oxygen, causing unconsciousness or death.
 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a common chemical asphyxiate
 CO has an affinity for hemoglobin 200 times greater than that of
oxygen and once it is absorbed into the blood stream, prevents
the transport of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
 The individual who is poisoned may realize what is taking place but
he/she may not have enough strength left to get into fresh air.

12
 ....cont'd

2. Byssinosis
 A lung disease caused by prolonged inhalation of textile fiber such as
cotton dust threatens the health of textile workers.
3. Pneumoconiosis
 A disease of the lungs due to inhalation of dust; characterized by
inflammation, coughing and fibrosis.
4. Asbestosis
 A lung disease resulting from the inhalation of asbestos particles;
marked by severe fibrosis and a high risk of cancer of the pleura
5. Exposure to organic chemicals
 These organic chemicals are known to cause kidney and liver
damage. 13
 ....cont'd

6. Exposure to extreme temperatures- both high or low temperatures are

hazardous to the health of the workers (e.g. foundry, deep freezers, etc.).
7. Heatstroke- a feverish condition caused by failure of the body’s
temperature regulating mechanism when exposed to excessively high
temperatures.
8. Frostbite- injury to body tissues, especially the nose, fingers, or toes,
caused by exposure to extreme cold.

14
 ....cont'd

 Inhalation and dermal contact are the primary and secondary

modes of exposure, respectively, to chemical agents in the
occupational environment

Biological Hazards: Many biological agents such as viruses, bacteria,

parasites, fungi, moulds and organic dusts have been found to occur in
occupational exposures.

15
 ....cont'd

 In many developing countries the number one exposure is

biological agents.

 Exposure to biological hazards in workplace results in a significant

amount of occupationally associated diseases.

Biological hazards can be transmitted to a person through:

a. Inhalation

b. Injection

c. Ingestion

d. Contact with the skin

16
 ....cont'd
Ergonomics hazard: include improper designed tools or work areas like
unusual and unnecessary lifting, poor visual conditions, repeated
motions, work place design that may be responsible for fatigue, stress,
and strain.

o What is ergonomics hazard how we correct it?

Psycho- social hazard: Up to 50% of all workers in industrial countries

judge their work to be “mentally heavy”.

 Psychological stress caused by time pressure and risk of

unemployment has become more prevalent during the past decade.

o What are the cause of psycho- social hazard?

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 ....cont'd
Reduction of occupational stresses depends not only on helping
individuals to cope with their problems but also on:

 Improved vocational guidance,

 Arrangement of working hours,

 Job design, and work methods;

 Good management

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 ....cont'd

Health impacts of occupational hazard:

• Injuries
• Pesticide poisoning
• Mental disorders
• Pneumoconiosis
• Noise-induced hearing loss
• Skin disorders
• Chronic respiratory disease
• Musculoskeletal disorders

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 occupational health risk assessment

• Even though no fixed rules to risk assessment, five steps

can be followed to ensure that your risk assessment is
carried out correctly;
I. Identify the hazards
II. Decide who might be harmed and how
III. Evaluate the risks and decide on precaution
IV. Record your significant finding
V. Review your assessment and update if necessary

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 Evaluation of occupational hazards
The aim is to find out an association between the real cause and its
effect and use of this data adversary compliance of regulatory purpose.

Expectation and recognition continue during the evaluation phase, which

involves a preliminary survey, including:

1. Visual and

2. Instrumental monitoring of a facility or site

Visual monitoring refers to the observation of processes or conditions at

the facility or site, and subjectively and objectively identifying potential and
actual hazards.

21
 ....cont'd

Instrumental monitoring involves the use of monitoring

equipment to record qualitative and quantitative

environnemental surveillance data

 Evaluation of the working environment is very critical and

should be done by a well trained public health practitioner

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 Method of sampling

 Grab Sampling Vs integrated Sampling

 Instantaneous or grab Sampling is the
collection of an air sample over a short period
whereas longer period of sampling is called
integrated sampling

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 Types of sampling

Area or environmental sampling Vs personal sampling

Environmental sampling includes sampling for gases, vapors,

aerosol concentrations, noise, temperature etc.

 Which are found on the worker or the general work area

or environment

Personal sampling

The objective: is to see the extent of exposure of the person

working on a particular contaminant while he/she is working at
a location or work place.
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 ....cont'd
Health surveillance

The Occupational Health and Safety act requires medical

surveillance of workers for the protection of worker’s health .

At its simplest health surveillance might just be to keep medical

records but there is also sophisticated tests that can be used.

Biological measurements

 Biological effect measurements

 Medical tests e.g. Kidney function tests, Lung function tests,

 Chest x-rays, etc.

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 Control methods of occupational hazard

Generally, there are five major categories of prevention and

control measures:

1. Elimination: eliminating the hazard completely is the ideal

solution, but it is seldom (rarely) easy to achieve; usually there
are good reasons why a process or operation has to be carried
out and why it has to be done in a certain way.

2. Substitution: If a practically dangerous chemical or work

processes cannot be completely eliminated, then it should
be applied with a safer substitute
26
 ....cont'd

Example, using less hazardous pesticides such as those

based on pyrethrins (prepared from natural product), which

are considered to be less toxic to humans than some other

pesticides

3. Engineering controls: may mean changing a piece of

machinery (for example, using proper, machine guards) or a

work process to reduce exposure to a hazard;

27
 ....cont'd
4. Administrative Controls

 Administrative controls limits the amounts of time workers spend at

hazardous job locations.

 Administrative control can be used together with other methods of

control to reduce exposure to occupational hazards.

Examples: Changing work schedules, for example two people may be

able to work 4 hours each at a job instead of one person working for 8
hours at that job.

 Moving a hazardous work process so that few people will be exposed.

 Changing a work process to a shift when fewer people are working.

 Workers promotion. 28
 ....cont'd
 Provision of health and sanitation facilities.

 Other administrative services: Provision of health and sanitation facilities,

Water Supply, Sanitary Facilities, Refuse disposal, Liquid waste collection
disposal, Illumination/lighting, Good Housekeeping and Maintenance.

5. Personal protective equipment

PPE can be uncomfortable, may decrease work performance and may

create new health and safety hazards.

For example, ear protectors can prevent hearing warning signals,

respirators can make it harder to breathe, earplugs may cause infection and
leaky gloves can trap and spread hazardous chemicals against the skin.
o Why PPE is the least effective method?

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