CH 1

Chapter 1: Introduction
Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
Outline
 The Need for Databases

 Data Models
 Relational Databases
 Database Design
 Storage Manager
 Query Processing
 Transaction Manager
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Management System (DBMS)
 DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
 Collection of interrelated data
 Set of programs to access the data
 An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
 Database Applications:
 Banking: transactions
 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
 Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
 Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
 Databases can be very large.
 Databases touch all aspects of our lives
University Database Example
 Application program examples
 Add new students, instructors, and courses
 Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
 Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages
(GPA) and generate transcripts
 In the early days, database applications were built directly on
top of file systems
Drawbacks of using file systems to store data
 Data redundancy and inconsistency

 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
 Difficulty in accessing data
 Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
 Data isolation
 Multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
 Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become “buried”
in program code rather than being stated explicitly
 Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
Drawbacks of using file systems to store data (Cont.)
 Atomicity of updates
 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
updates carried out
 Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either
complete or not happen at all
 Concurrent access by multiple users
 Concurrent access needed for performance
 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
 Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating it
by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
 Security problems
 Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
Levels of Abstraction
 Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., instructor) is stored.
 Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
 View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.
View of Data
An architecture for a database system
Instances and Schemas
 Similar to types and variables in programming languages
 Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
 Example: The database consists of information about a set of
customers and accounts in a bank and the relationship between them
 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
 Physical schema–
schema the overall physical structure of the database
 Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
 Analogous to the value of a variable
 Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema
without changing the logical schema
 Applications depend on the logical schema
 In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components
should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously
influence others.
Data Models
 A collection of tools for describing
 Data
 Data relationships
 Data semantics
 Data constraints
 Relational model
 Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
 Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
 Semistructured data model (XML)
 Other older models:
 Network model
 Hierarchical model
A hierarchical database is a data model in which data is stored in the form of
records and organized into a tree-like structure, or parent-child structure, in
which one parent node can have many child nodes connected through links.
The network model was created to represent complex data relationships more
effectively when compared to hierarchical models, to improve database
performance and standards. It has entities which are organized in a graphical
representation and some entities are accessed through several paths. A User
perceives the network model as a collection of records in 1:M relationships.
Relational Model (RM) represents the database as a collection of relations. A

relation is nothing but a table of values. Every row in the table represents a
collection of related data values. These rows in the table denote a real-world entity
or relationship.
An entity–relationship model (or ER model) describes interrelated things of

interest in a specific domain of knowledge. A basic ER model is composed of entity
types (which classify the things of interest) and specifies relationships that can exist
between entities (instances of those entity types).
An object - based data model is a data model based on object-oriented
programming, associating methods (procedures) with objects that can benefit
from class hierarchies. Thus, “objects” are levels of abstraction that include
attributes and behavior.
An Object relational model is a combination of a Object oriented database

model and a Relational database model. So, it supports objects, classes,
inheritance etc. just like Object Oriented models and has support for data types,
tabular structures etc. like Relational data model.
The semi-structured model is a database model where there is no separation

between the data and the schema, and the amount of structure used depends
on the purpose. ... It provides a flexible format for data exchange between
different types of databases.
Relational Model
 All the data is stored in various tables.
 Example of tabular data in the relational model
Columns
Rows
A Sample Relational Database
Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
 DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data dictionary
 Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
 Database schema
 Integrity constraints
 Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
 Authorization
 Who can access what
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized
by the appropriate data model
 DML also known as query language
 Two classes of languages
 Pure – used for proving properties about computational
power and for optimization
 Relational Algebra
 Tuple relational calculus
 Domain relational calculus
 Commercial – used in commercial systems
 SQL is the most widely used commercial language
SQL
 The most widely used commercial language
 SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language
 To be able to compute complex functions SQL is usually
embedded in some higher-level language
 Application programs generally access databases through one of
 Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
 Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow
SQL queries to be sent to a database
Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:
 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema.

Database design requires that we find a “good” collection of
relation schemas.
 Business decision – What attributes should we record in
the database?
 Computer Science decision – What relation schemas
should we have and how should the attributes be
distributed among the various relation schemas?
 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the
database
Database Design (Cont.)
 Is there any problem with this relation?
Design Approaches
 Need to come up with a methodology to ensure that each of the
relations in the database is “good”
 Two ways of doing so:
 Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
 Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and
relationships
 Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship
diagram:
 Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
 Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them
Object-Relational Data Models
 Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
 Object Relational Data Models
 Extend the relational data model by including object orientation
and constructs to deal with added data types.
 Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-
atomic values such as nested relations.
 Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
 Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.
XML: Extensible Markup Language
 Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
 Originally intended as a document markup language not a
database language
 The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures
made XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
 XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
 A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and
querying XML documents/data
Database Engine
 Storage manager
 Query processing
 Transaction manager
Storage Management
 Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
between the low-level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system.
 The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
 Interaction with the OS file manager
 Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
 Issues:
 Storage access
 File organization
 Indexing and hashing
Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation
Query Processing (Cont.)
 Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
 Equivalent expressions
 Different algorithms for each operation
 Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a
query can be enormous
 Need to estimate the cost of operations
 Depends critically on statistical information about relations
which the database must maintain
 Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute
cost of complex expressions
Transaction Management
 What if the system fails?
 What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same
data?
 A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
 Transaction-management component ensures that the
database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system
failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and
transaction failures.
 Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among
the concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the
database.
Database Users and Administrators
Database
Database System Internals
Database Architecture
The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by

the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
 Centralized
 Client-server
 Parallel (multi-processor)
 Distributed
History of Database Systems
 1950s and early 1960s:
 Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
 Tapes provided only sequential access
 Punched cards for input
 Late 1960s and 1970s:
 Hard disks allowed direct access to data
 Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
 Ted Codd defines the relational data model
 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
 IBM Research begins System R prototype
 UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
 High-performance (for the era) transaction processing
History (cont.)
 1980s:
 Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
 SQL becomes industrial standard
 Parallel and distributed database systems
 Object-oriented database systems
 1990s:
 Large decision support and data-mining applications
 Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
 Emergence of Web commerce
 Early 2000s:
 XML and XQuery standards
 Automated database administration
 Later 2000s:
 Giant data storage systems
 Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..
End of Chapter 1

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

 The Need for Databases

 Data redundancy and inconsistency

Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

An architecture for a database system

Relational Model (RM) represents the database as a collection of relations. A

An entity–relationship model (or ER model) describes interrelated things of

An Object relational model is a combination of a Object oriented database

The semi-structured model is a database model where there is no separation

 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema.

The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by

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