Operating Systems Unit 3 Chapter 8: Virtual Memory
Operating Systems Unit 3 Chapter 8: Virtual Memory
Unit 3
Chapter 8: Virtual Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Chapter 8: Virtual Memory
Background
Demand Paging
Page Replacement
Allocation of Frames
Thrashing
Virtual Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Background
Code needs to be in memory to execute, but entire program rarely
used
Error code, unusual routines, large data structures
Entire program code not needed at same time
Consider ability to execute partially-loaded program
Program no longer constrained by limits of physical memory
Each program takes less memory while running -> more
programs run at the same time
Increased CPU utilization and throughput with no increase
in response time or turnaround time
Less I/O needed to load or swap programs into memory ->
each user program runs faster
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Background (Cont.)
Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from
physical memory
Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution
Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical
address space
Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes
Allows for more efficient process creation
More programs running concurrently
Less I/O needed to load or swap processes
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Background (Cont.)
Virtual address space – logical view of how process is stored
in memory
Usually start at address 0, contiguous addresses until end of
space
Meanwhile, physical memory organized in page frames
MMU must map logical to physical
Virtual memory can be implemented via:
Demand paging
Demand segmentation
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical Memory
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Virtual-address Space
Usually design logical address space for
stack to start at Max logical address and
grow “down” while heap grows “up”
Maximizes address space use
Unused address space between
the two is hole
No physical memory needed
until heap or stack grows to a
given new page
Enables sparse address spaces with
holes left for growth, dynamically linked
libraries, etc
System libraries shared via mapping into
virtual address space
Shared memory by mapping pages read-
write into virtual address space
Pages can be shared during fork(),
speeding process creation
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Shared Library Using Virtual Memory
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Demand Paging
Could bring entire process into memory
at load time
Or bring a page into memory only when
it is needed
Less I/O needed, no unnecessary
I/O
Less memory needed
Faster response
More users
Similar to paging system with swapping
(diagram on right)
Page is needed reference to it
invalid reference abort
not-in-memory bring to memory
Lazy swapper – never swaps a page
into memory unless page will be needed
Swapper that deals with pages is a
pager
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Basic Concepts
With swapping, pager guesses which pages will be used before
swapping out again
Instead, pager brings in only those pages into memory
How to determine that set of pages?
Need new MMU functionality to implement demand paging
If pages needed are already memory resident
No difference from non demand-paging
If page needed and not memory resident
Need to detect and load the page into memory from storage
Without changing program behavior
Without programmer needing to change code
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Valid-Invalid Bit
With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v in-memory – memory resident, i not-in-memory)
Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
Example of a page table snapshot:
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main Memory
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Page Fault
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Steps in Handling a Page Fault
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Aspects of Demand Paging
Extreme case – start process with no pages in memory
OS sets instruction pointer to first instruction of process, non-
memory-resident -> page fault
And for every other process pages on first access
Pure demand paging is like INITIALIZATION
Actually, a given instruction could access multiple pages -> multiple
page faults
Consider fetch and decode of instruction which adds 2 numbers
from memory and stores result back to memory
Pain decreased because of locality of reference
Hardware support needed for demand paging
Page table with valid / invalid bit
Secondary memory (swap device with swap space)
Instruction restart
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Instruction Restart
Consider an instruction that could access several different locations
block move
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Performance of Demand Paging
Stages in Demand Paging (worse case)
1. Trap to the operating system
2. Save the user registers and process state
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of the page on the disk
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
1. Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced
2. Wait for the device seek and/or latency time
3. Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame
6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user
7. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)
8. Save the registers and process state for the other user
9. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in memory
11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again
12. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and then resume the interrupted
instruction
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Performance of Demand Paging (Cont.)
Three major activities
Service the interrupt – careful coding means just several hundred instructions
needed
Read the page – lots of time
Restart the process – again just a small amount of time
Page Fault Rate 0 p 1
if p = 0 no page faults
if p = 1, every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ swap page out
+ swap page in )
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Page Replacement
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Need For Page Replacement
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Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk
3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free frame; update the page
and frame tables
4. Continue the process by restarting the instruction that caused the trap
Note now potentially 2 page transfers for page fault – increasing EAT
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Page Replacement
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Page and Frame Replacement Algorithms
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Graph of Page Faults Versus The Number of Frames
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First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)
15 page faults
Can vary by reference string: consider 1,2,3,4,1,2,5,1,2,3,4,5
Adding more frames can cause more page faults!
Belady’s Anomaly
How to track ages of pages?
Just use a FIFO queue
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anomaly
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Optimal Algorithm
Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
9 is optimal for the example
How do you know this?
Can’t read the future
Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm
Use past knowledge rather than future
Replace page that has not been used in the most amount of time
Associate time of last use with each page
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
Counter implementation
Every page entry has a counter; every time page is referenced
through this entry, copy the clock into the counter
When a page needs to be changed, look at the counters to find
smallest value
Search through table needed
Stack implementation
Keep a stack of page numbers in a double link form:
Page referenced:
move it to the top
requires 6 pointers to be changed
But each update more expensive
No search for replacement
LRU and OPT are cases of stack algorithms that don’t have
Belady’s Anomaly
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Use Of A Stack to Record Most Recent Page References
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
LRU Approximation Algorithms
LRU needs special hardware and still slow
Reference bit
With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
When page is referenced bit set to 1
Replace any with reference bit = 0 (if one exists)
We do not know the order, however
Second-chance algorithm
Generally FIFO, plus hardware-provided reference bit
Clock replacement
If page to be replaced has
Reference bit = 0 -> replace it
reference bit = 1 then:
– set reference bit 0, leave page in memory
– replace next page, subject to same rules
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm
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Enhanced Second-Chance Algorithm
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Counting Algorithms
Keep a counter of the number of references that have been made
to each page
Not common
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Page-Buffering Algorithms
Keep a pool of free frames, always
Then frame available when needed, not found at fault time
Read page into free frame and select victim to evict and add
to free pool
When convenient, evict victim
Possibly, keep list of modified pages
When backing store otherwise idle, write pages there and set
to non-dirty
Possibly, keep free frame contents intact and note what is in them
If referenced again before reused, no need to load contents
again from disk
Generally useful to reduce penalty if wrong victim frame
selected
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Applications and Page Replacement
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Thrashing
If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-fault rate is
very high
Page fault to get page
Replace existing frame
But quickly need replaced frame back
This leads to:
Low CPU utilization
Operating system thinking that it needs to increase the
degree of multiprogramming
Another process added to the system
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Thrashing (Cont.)
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Demand Paging and Thrashing
Why does demand paging work?
Locality model
Process migrates from one locality to another
Localities may overlap
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Locality In A Memory-Reference Pattern
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Working-Set Model
working-set window a fixed number of page references
Example: 10,000 instructions
WSSi (working set of Process Pi) =
total number of pages referenced in the most recent (varies in time)
if too small will not encompass entire locality
if too large will encompass several localities
if = will encompass entire program
D = WSSi total demand frames
Approximation of locality
if D > m Thrashing
Policy if D > m, then suspend or swap out one of the processes
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013