Organizational Behavior

unit-2
By
Department of Management Studies
 Personality – types – Factors influencing
personality–Theories– Learning– Types of
learners – The learning process – Learning
theories Emotions – Emotional Labour–Emotional
Intelligence –Theories. Attitudes – Characteristics
– Components – Formation –Measurement
 – Values. Perceptions – Importance – Factors
influencing perception – Interpersonal perception–
Impression Management. Motivation– Theories –
Importance – Types – Effects on work behavior.
 PERSONALITY
 The personality implies psychological and social character that an individual acquires by hereditary
biological endowment which provides him the basis for development and social growth of environment
within which he springs forth.
 Personality is the product of social interaction in group life.
 In society every person has different traits such as skin, colour, height and weight.
 They have different types of personalities because individuals are not alike.
 It refers to the habits, attitudes as well as physical traits of a person which are not same but have vary
from group to group and society to society, everyone has personality, which may be good or bad,
impressive or unimpressive.
 PERSONALITY
 It develops during the process of socialization in a culture of a specific group or society. One cannot
determine it of an individual exactly because it varies from culture to culture and time to time.
 For example, a killer is considered criminal in peace time and hero in war. The feeling and actions of an
individual during interaction moulds the personality.
 It is the sum of total behaviours of the individual and covers both overt and covert behaviours, interests,
mentality and intelligence. It is the sum of physical and mental abilities and capabilities.
 The Meaning of Personality: Personality has been derived from the Latin word “persona” which means
“mask” used by the actors to change their appearance. It is the combination of an individual thoughts,
characteristics, behaviours, attitude, idea and habits.
 Definitions
 According to K. Young, “Personality is a patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes and ideas of an
individual, as these are organised externally into roles and statuses, and as they relate internally to
motivation, goals, and various aspects of selfhood.”
 G. W. Allport defined it as “a person’s pattern of habits, attitudes, and traits which determine his
adjustment to his environment.” According to Robert E. Park and Earnest W. Burgess, personality is
“the sum and organization of those traits which determine the role of the individual in the group.”
 Herbert A. Bloch defined it as “the characteristic organization of the individual’s habits, attitudes,
values, emotional characteristics……. which imparts consistency to the behaviour of the individual.”
 Characteristics of personality
 (i) Personality is not related to bodily structure alone. It includes both structure and dynamics
 (ii) Personality is an indivisible unit.
 (iii) Personality is neither good nor bad.
 (iv) Personality is not a mysterious phenomenon.
 (v) Every personality is unique.
 (vi)Personality refers to persistent qualities of the individual. It expresses consistency and regularly.
 (vii) Personality is acquired.
 (viii) Personality is influenced by social interaction. It is defined in terms of behaviour.
7 personality characteristics that influence individual are:
 Locus of Control
 Self-Efficacy
 Self-Esteem
 Self-Monitoring
 Positive/Negative Affect
 Risk-Taking
 Type A and Type B Personality
Locus of Control
The degree to which individuals perceive control over a
situation being internal or external is called locus of
control.

Locus of control refers to the range of beliefs that

individuals hold in terms of being controlled by self
(internal locus) or controlled by others or the situation
(external locus).
 Self-Efficacy
 Generalized self-efficacy refers to a belief about one’s
own ability to deal with events and challenges.

High self-efficacy results in greater confidence in one’s

job-related abilities to function effectively on the job.
Success in previous situations leads to increased self-
efficacy for present and future challenges.
 Self-Esteem
 An individual’s self-worth is referred to as self-esteem.
Individuals with high self-esteem have positive feelings
about themselves.

Low self-esteem individuals are strongly affected by what

others think of them, and view themselves negatively.
 Positive/Negative Affect
 Individuals exhibit attitudes about situations in a positive or negative
fashion.

An individual’s tendency to accentuate the positive aspects of situations is

referred to as positive affect, while those accentuating less optimistic
views are referred to as having negative affect.

Employees with positive affect are absent from work less often. Negative

affect individuals report higher levels of job stress.
 Risk-Taking
 People differ in their willingness to take chances. High-risk-
taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less
information in making their choices than low risk-taking
managers.
 Type A and Type B Personality
 Type A personality individual is aggressively involved in a chronic,
struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if
required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other
persons.

Type B personalities are rarely harried by the desire to obtain a

wildly increasing number of things or participate in an endless
growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of time.

 Factors of Personality
 1. Biological Factors
 2. Social Factors
 3. Cultural Factors
 4. Physical Environment
 5. Situational Factors
 Biological Factors of Personality
 Biological Factors of personality are very important for the formation of human personality.
 Children are born in a family; inherit many traits and features from their parents.
 Children get physical and psychological characteristics from their parents which becomes a part of
their personalities. Some of the inherited traits are courage, coward, intelligence, weakness etc.
 For example it was experimented on the negro that they are biological inferior.
 A normal healthy man has some physical similarities such as two hands five senses, two eyes and
these biological similarities help to explain some of the similarities in the behaviour.
 It separates individuals from one another and their various physical characteristics except identical
twins having the same physical qualities. So, biological factors of personality are responsible for the
development of personality.
 Heredity
 Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.
Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle
composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are
characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one’s parents.
 The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an
individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the genes,
located in the chromosomes.
 Brain
 The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role
that the brain plays in personality. The psychologists are unable
to prove empirically the contribution of the human brain in
influencing personality.
 Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the
brain (ESB) research give an indication that a better
understanding of human personality and behaviour might
come from the study of the brain.
 Physical Features
 A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual’s external
appearance, is biologically determined. The fact that a person
is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will influence the
person’s effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-
concept.
Social Factors of Personality
 When an individual interact with other persons in his/her group give and take relationship
takes place and it affects the personality of an individual social factors of personality are
responsible for the formation of personality, when an individual has group experience and
contact with others personality of an individual is influenced by others may be bad or good
but depends on the association in which he/she keeps. In a society every person plays a
specific role and status.
 For example in our society younger are expected to be respectful for elders. Many other social
factors like environment, group life, family, media with which an individual interact in his/her
society daily life mould their personalities. We can say that whatever comes in contact with an
individual’s social life affects personality of that individual and develop good or bad
personality.
 Cultural Factors of Personality
Cultural Factors of Personality Both material as well as non-material culture affects
personality of an individual. An individual living in his/her culture adopts the traits
consciously or unconsciously and acts accordingly. Culture of any society determines the
behaviours and personality of an individual and he/she is expected to act according to the
culture. A person follows all the social norms of a culture which results in the formation of
good personality while non-conformity to the cultural rules develops abnormal or bad
personality. So, the culture in which an individual seeks satisfaction adjusts
himself/herself and develops personality.
Physical Environment
 Physical Environment Physical environment also determines the personality of an
individual. Environmental factors include land, river, mountains, hills, forests, plain area,
atmosphere etc. which affect the personality to be good or bad, healthy or weak. All the
feelings, emotions, ideas, attitudes, habits, behaviour and body structure is the result of
physical environment of to which an individual belongs.
 For example, body structure, physique, colour and health of the rural people are different
from urban people. These people have different environment due to which they develop
variety of personalities. The people living in cities have facilities and modern ways of life
which creates to develop delicate bodies and minds as compare to the rural people who are
deprived of these facilities.
Situational Factors of Personality
 Situational Factors of personality also have a complete share in the formation of personality of
an individual. Situational factors of personality are charging according to the social
situations. Every person face may situations in his life which enables him/her to change
his/her behaviour.
 For example, a teacher may be rigid and strict with students but may not with his/her family.
An officer may behave with the subordinates differently as compare to his/her friends.
Personality is not the result of only one factor but every factor is responsible to give complete
share in its formation. A person behave and his/her personality exists when interacts with
environment, culture, society, parents, friends and to those who come in contact by chance.
 Key Personality Traits Relevant to Work Behavior

 Self Esteem
 Locus of Control
 Self-Efficacy
 Self-Monitoring
 Emotional Intelligence
 five Big Personality Traits which have a significant impact in
 Extroversion individual’s life
 Agreeableness
 Conscientiousness
 Emotional Stability
 Openness to experience
Personality Types (MBTI)
MBTI describes four dimensions of Personality Types:
 Extroversion versus Introversion: (The ways in which people relate to the world)
 Sensing versus Intuition: (Becoming aware of and perceiving information)
 Thinking versus feeling: (Ways of deciding and prefer to make judgments)
 Judging and Perception: (The amount of control exercising and organizing people)
 https://www.verywellmind.com/the-big-five-
personality-dimensions-2795422
 Extrovert Personality
 The extrovert is a friendly person who is quick to establish
relationships with others. Extroverts are gregarious and
display a high level of social engagement. They enjoy being
with people and like to be in the company of large groups.
Extroverts are active and tend to get involved in many
activities. At the opposite end of the spectrum, people with
low levels of extroversion feel a greater desire for privacy,
avoid large group situations and generally live a more
leisurely life.
 Agreeable Personality
 The agreeable person can cooperate well with
other people by putting aside personal needs while
getting along with peers. These people trust others
and rely on their integrity, character and abilities.
Often the agreeable personality feels the need to
help other people, and can derive fulfillment by
offering support.
 Conscientious Personality
 Conscientious people exude confidence and feel
capable of accomplishing goals. They may be
overachievers who want to be viewed as
successful.
 Cautious Personality
 Cautious people will look at problems from every
angle before acting or making a decision, while
those who are not cautious often act or speak
before they think things through.
 Self-Conscious Personality
 Self-conscious people are highly sensitive to what
others think and say about them. They dislike
criticism and are sensitive to rejection, while those
who are not all that self-conscious are not bothered
by being judged by other people.
 Adventurous Personality
 People with an adventurous personality seek out
new experiences and dislike routine. They may be
unafraid to challenge authority and conventions,
while those who are less adventurous may have
traditional values and prefer security over
adventurousness. Those with an adventurous
personality enjoy having power and may be more
amenable to taking risks
 Theories of Personality
The theories of personality have been grouped as:
Psychoanalytic Theory
Type Theories
Trait Theories
Self-Theory
 Psychoanalytic Theory
 The Psychoanalytic theory of personality has held the interest of psychologists and psychiatrists
for a long time. Sigmund Freud, its formulator, was quite an influence. It attends to emphasizes
three main issues i.e. the id, the ego and the superego.
Components of Psychoanalytic Theory
 Id
 The id is the only part of the personality that is present at birth. It is inherited, primitive,
inaccessible and completely unconscious.
 The id operates according to the pleasure principle, that is, to seek pleasure, avoid pain and gain
immediate gratification of its wishes.
 The id contains:
 (a) The life instincts, which are sexual instincts and biological urges such as hunger and thirst
(b) The death instinct, which accounts for our aggressive and destructive impulses.
 Psychoanalytic Theory
Ego
The ego is the logical, rational, realistic part of the personality. The ego evolves from the id and draws its energy
from the id.
One of the functions of the ego is to satisfy the id’s urges. But the ego, which is mostly conscious, acts according to
the reality principle. It must consider the constraints of the real world in determining appropriate times, places, and
object for gratification of the id’s wishes.
Superego
When the child is age 5 or 6 the superego – the moral component of the personality – is formed.
The super ego has two parts:
(a)The “conscience“, consisting of all the behaviours for which we have been punished and about which we feel
guilty.
(b) The “ego ideal“, containing the behaviours for which we have been praised and rewarded and about which we
feel pride and satisfaction.
In its quest for moral perfection, the superego, a moral guide, sets up sign posts that define and limit the flexibility
of ego.
 Type Theories
The type theories represent an attempt to put some degree of order into the chaos of personality theory.
The type theory represents an attempt to scientifically describe personality by classifying individuals into convenient categories.
Two categories of type theories of personality are explained below:
Sheldon Physiognomy Theory
William Sheldon has presented a unique body-type temperamental model that represents a link between certain anatomical
features and psychological traits with distinguishing characteristics of an individual and his behaviour.
Sheldon identifies three body types:
Endomorph: He is bulky and beloved. Sheldon’s endomorph to be rather fat, thick in proportion to his height. His personality
temperament is viscerotonic (the person seeks comfort, loves fine food, eats too much, is jovial, affectionate and liked by all).
Mesomorph: He is basically strong, athletic and tough. All appreciate his physique. In fact, it is this personality all other “morphs”
wish for. According to Sheldon, he will tend to be somatotonic (he is fond of muscular activity; he tends to be highly aggressive, and
self-assertive).
Ectomorph: These people are thin, long and poorly developed physic54ally. Though physically weak, he leads the league in the
intelligent department.
 Carl
 The way Jung Extrovert Introvert Theory
 Type personality is in terms of behaviour or psychological factors. Jung’s introvert and extrovert
types are an example.However, as Carl Jung himself pointed out, the introvert-extrovert typology
turns out to be more in the nature of a continuum than discrete, separate types. Carl Jung proposed
his own two-part theory of personality.
 Carl Jung two types are:
 Extrovert: They are optimistic, outgoing, gregarious and sociable. Extroverts are basically objective,
reality-oriented individuals who are more doers than thinkers. Introverts: By contrast, introverts are
more inward-directed people. They are less sociable, withdrawn and absorbed in inner life. They tend
to be guided by their own ideas and philosophy.
 Few people are complete introverts or extroverts, but the mixture of these two ingredients determines
the kind of overall personality of an individual.
 Trait Theories
 According to trait theory, a personality trait can be defined as an “enduring attribute of a person that
appears consistently in a variety of situations”. In combination, such traits distinguish one personality
from another. A trait is a personal characteristic that is used to describe and explain personality. It is
a list of relatively stable and consistent personal characteristics.
 Gordon Allport Personality Traits
 Gordon Allport claims that personality traits are real entities, physically located somewhere in the
brain. We each inherit our own unique set of raw material for given traits, which are then shaped by
our experiences.
 Traits describe the particular way we respond to the environment and the consistency of that
response. If we are shy, we respond to strangers differently than if we are friendly; if we are self-
confident,
 Trait Theories
 Gordon identified two main categories of traits:
 1. Common Traits: Common traits are those we share or hold in common with most others in our
own culture.
 2. Individual Traits: According to Allport, there are three individual traits: cardinal, central and
secondary traits.
 Cardinal Traits: A cardinal trait is “so pervasive and outstanding in a life that almost every act
seems traceable to its influence”.
 Central Traits: According to Allport, are those that we would “mention in writing a careful letter of
recommendation”.
 Secondary Traits: The secondary traits are less obvious, less consistent and not as critical in
defining our personality as the cardinal and central traits. Examples of secondary traits are food
and music preferences.
Raymond Cattell 16 Personality Factors
 Raymond Cattell considered personality to be a pattern of traits providing the key to
understanding and predicting a person’s behaviour.
 Cattell identified two types:
 Surface Traits: Observable qualities of a person like honest, helpful, kind, generous etc.,
Cattell called these “surface traits”.
 Source Traits: Make up the most basic personality structure and, according to Cattell,
actually cause behaviour. Intelligence is a source trait, and every person has a certain amount
of it but, obviously not exactly the same amount or the same kind.
 Self-theory theories represent the more traditional approach to
 The psychoanalytic, type and trait
explaining the complex human personality.
 Self-theory rejects both psychoanalytic and behaviouristic conceptions of human nature as
too mechanistic, portraying people as creatures helplessly buffeted about by internal
instincts or external stimuli. Carl Rogers is most closely associated with his approach of self-
theory.
 Rogers developed this theory that places emphasis on the individual as an initiating,
creating, influential determinant of behaviour within the environmental framework.
 According to Rogers basic ingredients of personality:
 Self-Actualization:Carl Rogers believed that humans have one basic motive that is the tendency
to self-actualize – i.e. to fulfil one’s potential and achieve the highest level.
 Self-concept: Self-concept is defined as “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs
about oneself ”.
 The self-concept includes three components:
 Self-worth
 Self-image
 Ideal self
 LEARNING
 Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behaviour due to direct and indirect
experience. It means change in behaviour, attitude due to education and training, practice and
experience. It is completed by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively permanent.
Nature of Learning
 Learning involves change;
 It may or may not guarantee improvement.
 It should be permanent in nature, that is learning is for lifelong.
 The change in behavior is the result of experience, practice and training.
 Learning is reflected through behavior.
 Factors Affecting Learning
 Learning is based upon some key factors that decide what changes will be
caused by this experience.
 The key elements or the major factors that affect learning are
 Motivation,
 Practice,
 Environment, and
 Mental group.
 LEARNING PROCESS
 Learning is part of every one’s life. In our life, all complex behavior is learned. Learning is defined
as any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Whenever
any change occurs learning is taken place in the individual. If an individual behaves, reacts,
responds as a result of experience which is different from others, a person has encountered some
new learning experience in his life. This definition consists of the following four key elements:
 Change process
 Permanent change
 Setting behavioural actions
 Need for meaningful experiences
Learning Process
The learning process has the following steps:
 Stimuli
 Attention
 Recognition
 Translation
 Reinforcement
 Behavior
 Reward
 Habits
 Motives
 Efforts
 Stimuli
 Stimuli are any objects and language which draw
the attention of people. Employees get stimuli
from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell
and advice employees who pay attention to these
stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended
to.
 Attention
 The degree of attention depends upon the nature of
stimuli. All stimuli are not paid attention to. Technical
and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career-
oriented stimuli are generally accepted by employees.
The personality levels of employees influence their
desires to learn, motives for need fulfilment and tension
reduction.
 Recognition
 Attention-paid stimuli are recognised as acceptable
factors of improvement and new life styles.
Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognising
the stimuli for learning purposes. The levels of
recognition depend upon the levels of values,
preferences, needs and desires of the employees.

Translation
 The translation and evaluation process is a crucial
point for implementing the stimuli in behaviour
through reinforcement. Employees behave
properly through attitude changes, objectivity,
mental and physical development. It is observed in
better performances.
 Reinforcement
 Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes
stimuli, attention, recognition, translation and behaviour.
Perception leads to learning, but perception itself is not learning
unless it is reinforced.
 Repeated action is reinforcement. Reinforcement may be positive,
negative, punishment and extinction. Learners learn as per their
perception levels. Generally positive reinforcement is more
effective for making permanent changes in behaviour.

 Behavior
 Learning changes behaviour through reinforcement of
perceived knowledge. It makes permanent changes in
behaviour. A temporary change in behaviour is not
learning. Positive behaviour gives rewards to employees.
 Reward
 Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated
behaviour provides a reward, it is accepted, otherwise it
is not accepted. Employees develop their behaviour into
habits. Rewards may be monetary or non-monetary.

 Habits
 A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit which helps
continuous improvement in behaviour and performance.
Employees develop the habit of selfappraisal and development.
It helps to instil creativity and confidence in employees who are
encouraged to behave properly again and again.

 Motives
 Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees
getting more satisfaction through learning develop high
motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives.
Learning is complete only when motives are fully realised
and translated into efforts.

 Efforts
 Habits help achieve good efforts and performance.
This is a continuous process. Efforts are the
automatic outcome of good habits which are
acquired through the learning process. Self-
development is possible through self-effort.
 Learning Theories
 Learning can be understood clearly with the help of some theories
that will explain our behaviour. Some of the remarkable theories
are:
 Classical Conditioning Theory
 Operant Conditioning Theory
 Social Learning Theory
 Cognitive Learning Theory
 Classical Conditioning Theory
 Learning through classical conditioning (C.C) was first studied by Ivan Pavlov, a
famous Nobel Price winning physiologist, at the turns of 20th century. The C.C.
theories deals with the association of one event with another desired event
resulting in a desired behaviour of learning.
 Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog to study the relation between the dog’s
salivation and ringing of a bell. A simple surgical procedure helped him to
measure accurately the amount of salvia secretes by dog.
Classical Conditioning Theory
 Operant Conditioning Theory
 O.C is defined as “Behaviour that produces effect.” OC is based on work of B.F. Skinner who
advocated that individual’s exhibit responses that are rewarded and will not exhibit response that
are either not rewarded or are punished.
 O.C also called instrument conditioning refers to the process that our behaviour produces certain
consequences & how we behave in future will depend on those consequences.. This theory is a
learning process in which behaviour is sensitive to, or controlled by its outcomes. If our action have
pleasant effect then we will be more likely to repeat them in future. If however our actions have
unpleasant effect we are less likely to repeat them in future.
Operant Conditioning Theory
 Social
 The key assumptions Learning
of social Theory
learning theory are as follows −
 Learning is not exactly behavioural; instead it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social
context.
 Learning can occur by observing behaviour and by observing the outcomes of the behaviour
(known as vicarious reinforcement).
 Learning includes observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making
decisions regarding the performance of the behaviour (known as observational learning or
modelling). Thus, learning can occur beyond an observable change in behaviour.
 Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not completely responsible for
learning.
 The learner is not a passive receiver of information. Understanding, environment, and
behaviour all mutually influence each other.
 Attention process
 People learn from a model only when they
recognize and pay attention to its critical features.
 If the learner is not attentive they would not able to
learn anything. We tend to be most influenced by
attractive models, repeatedly available, which we
think is important, or we see as similar to us.
 Retention process
 A model’s influence depends on how well the
individuals remember the models’ actions after the
model is no longer readily available.
 Motor reproduction process
 After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the
model, the watching must be converted to doing. It
involves recall the model’s behaviors and performing
own actions and matching them with those of the model.
 This process then demonstrates that the individual can
perform the modeled activities.
 Reinforcement process
 Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled
behavior if positive incentives or rewards are
provided. Behavior that is positively reinforced is
given more attention, learned better and performed
more often.
 At last, we can say that social learning theory is a
function of consequences. It also acknowledges the
existence of observational learning and the
importance of perception in learning.
 In this case, a person who wants to learn should identify
the target behavior and select the appropriate model and
modeling medium. Then he/she should create a
favorable learning environment and observe the model.
 Here the learners will try to remember and use
practically the observed behavior if there is a positive
reinforcement is related to this behavior
 Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognition defines a person’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretation, understanding about
himself and environment.
This theory considers learning as the outcome of deliberate thinking on a problem or situation
based upon known facts and responding in an objective and more oriented manner. It perceives
that a person learns the meaning of various objects and events and also learns the response
depending upon the meaning assigned to the stimuli.
This theory debates that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory which stores
organized information about the various events that occurs.
Cognitive Learning Theory
Definition of Emotion
Came from the Latin word ''emovere'' which means ''to move out''.
Subjective reactions to experiences that are associated with
physiological and behavioral changes(According to Woolfolk)
Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements
and that influence behavior(Acc. to Feldman)
Considered as the building blocks of personality
Four components of Emotion
Feeling component
Bodily Arousal
Purposive component
Social-Expressive component
Feeling component
• Emotions are subjective feelings
• Make us feel in a particular way.
• Anger or joy.
• Meaning and personal significance.
• Vary in intensity and quality.
• Rooted in mental processes (labeling).
 Bodily Arousal
• Biological activation.
• Autonomic and hormonal systems.
• Prepare and activate adaptive coping behavior during emotion.
• Body prepared for action.
• Alert posture, clenched fists.
Purposive component
• Give emotion its goal-directed force.
• Motivation to take action.
• Cope with emotion-causing circumstances.
• Why people benefit from emotions.
• Social and evolutionary advantage.
Social-Expressive component
• Emotion’s communicative aspect.
• Postures, gestures, vocalizations, facial
expressions make our emotions
public.
• Verbal and nonverbal communication.
• Helps us interpret the situation.
• How person reacts to event.
Facial Expressions Convey Emotions
Types of emotion-
• Anticipatory emotions- Desire, fear
• Outcome emotions- Happiness, sadness, anxiety, regret, relief
Types of emotions
Aspects of Emotions
• Biology of Emotions
– Originate in brain’s limbic system
• Intensity of Emotions
– Personality and Job requirements
• Frequency and Duration of Emotions
– How often emotions are exhibited
– How long emotions are displayed
• Functions of Emotions
– Critical for rational thinking
– Motivate people
Sources of Emotions and Moods
• Personality
• Day and Time of the Week
• Weather – Illusory correlation
• Stress
• Social Activities
• Sleep
• Exercise
• Age
• Gender
Why Emotions Were Ignored in OB?
• The “myth of rationality”
• Emotions of any kind are disruptive to organizations.
– Original OB focus was solely on the effects of strong negative
emotions that interfered with individual and organizational efficiency.
Emotional labor
• Emotional labor is a form of emotional regulation wherein workers are expected to display certain emotions as
part of their job, and to promote organizational goals.
• The intended effects of these emotional displays are on other, targeted people, who can be clients, customers,
subordinates or coworkers.
Emotional labor
• According to Hochschild, jobs involving emotional labor are defined as those that:
– require face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact with the public
– require the worker to produce an emotional state in another person
– allow the employer, through training and supervision, to exercise a degree of
control over the emotional activities of employees
Forms of emotional labor
Felt vs. Displayed Emotions
• Felt Emotions – An individual’s actual emotions
• Displayed Emotions – Emotions that are organizationally required and
considered appropriate in a given job
Surface acting
Deep acting
• Employees can display organizationally-desired emotions by acting out the emotion.
• Such acting can take two forms
– Surface acting--involves "painting on" affective displays, or faking;
• Surface acting involves an employee's presenting emotions on his or her
"surface" without actually feeling them.
• The employee in this case puts on a facade as if the emotions are felt, like "personal".
– Deep acting
• wherein they modify their inner feelings to match the emotion expressions the
organization requires.
Affective Events Theory (AET)
• Work events trigger positive and negative
emotional reactions
– Personality and mood determine the intensity of the emotional
response.
– Emotions can influence a broad range of work performance and job
satisfaction variables.
• Implications of the theory ACT
– Individual response reflects emotions and mood cycles.
– Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction.
– Emotional fluctuations create variations in job
satisfaction and performance.
– Both negative and positive emotions can distract
workers and reduce job performance.
Affective Events Theory (AET)
Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence refers to an assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and
competencies that influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental
demands and pressures.
It’s composed of five dimensions:
Self-awareness
Self-management
Self-motivation
Empathy
Social skills
Self-awareness:
The ability to be aware of what you are feeling
Self-management:
The ability to manage one’s own emotions and impulses
Self-motivation:
The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures
Empathy :
The ability to sense how others are feeling
Social skills:
The ability to handle the emotions of others
OB Applications of Emotions and Moods
• Leadership
– Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from
organizational leaders.
• Interpersonal Conflict
– Conflict in the workplace and individual emotions are
strongly intertwined.
• Negotiation
– Emotions can impair negotiations.
• Customer Services
– Emotions affect service quality delivered to customers which, in
turn, affects customer relationships.
OB Applications of Emotions and Moods
• Job Attitudes
– Can carry over to home
• Deviant Workplace Behaviors
– Negative emotions lead to employee deviance (actions that
violate norms and threaten the organization).
• How managers Can Influence Moods?
– Use humor and give their employees small token of
appreciation for work well done.
– Be in good mood
– Select positive team members
Emotion related issues in organization
Emotions in the work place result in a series of problems that managers find themselves
faced with in their workplace.
Personal issues:-
Employees react to one another because of personal traits that they either like or dislike in
their peers and this can cause some serious problems in the smooth execution of work.
Workplace Antics:-
Bullying or ganging up in office environments are as real
as the grapevine.
Management must be aware that there are peer pressures and groups that form based on
interests and other circumstances.
Employee Orientation:-
New employees can face a stiff battle to be accepted by existing employees and this can lead to
complications since the new recruit has been taken on to execute a specific role within the
business and the longer the candidate takes to be accepted, the greater the losses felt by the
company and the more the inefficiency.
 Implication for Manager
• Emotions and moods can affect job performance.
• You can’t control the employees’ emotions
and moods.
• But managers who understand the role of
emotions and moods will significantly
improve their ability to explain and predict
their coworkers’ behavior.
 I
Impression Management

 It is a goal-directed conscious or unconscious attempt to influence the perceptions of

other people about a person, object or event by regulating and controlling
information in social interaction

 .
 •IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT is how to make a favorable impression, how to perceive
others and evaluate others on the basis of
  Dress, make-up, hairstyle,
  Manner and general behavior,
  Body language.
 The process of portraying yourself to others in a manner that creates a desired impression.
 Impression Management is the goal- directed activity of controlling and regulating
information in order to influence the impressions formed by an audience.
Types of Impression Management
Types of Impression Management
Constructive -- helps in the formation of
self identity

Strategic -- helps in the attainment of some

interpersonal goal
Social Identity Theory
Social Identity Theory
• Personal versus Social identity continuum.
• Personal identity self description is a part of intragroup comparison.
• Description of self at social identity level is intergroup comparison.
Conflict between Personal Identity and Social Identity
• When a person does an act which is inconsistent to that of his social
identity then such conflict arises.
Social Identity Theory
 STRATEGIES OF IM
 The process of creating a false image of ourselves
 Intimidation
 • Intimidation: This strategy adapted by a person to get his/her work done by
arousing fear in them. Here his motto is to get his work done, take control and
get results.
 Self- promotion
 • Self- promotion: In this case, a person is promoting his strengths to prove his
competency. This can prove to be a positive point in case of an interview but if
your claims do not match your abilities, self promotion can prove to be
disastrous.
 STRATEGIES OF IM
INGRATIATION
An art of gaining acceptance or effort to make people like us.
Usually involves:
 - An ulterior motive (there are benefits for us)
 - In situations where the other person has discretionary power
Often achieved by:
 -Opinion conformity
- Other enhancement (flattery)
- Self enhancement through selective self-presentation (wearing attractive clothes,
talking cautiously, etc.)
STRATEGIES OF IM

Exemplification & Supplication

• Exemplification : This can be a way of portraying one's moral
worthiness. Here, a person tries to prove his sincerity, dedication and
responsibility towards his work, in a way that he tries to portray
himself as the superior one.
• Supplication : Supplication is an act wherein a person tries to gain
sympathy and attention by talking about his pains and faults.
STRATEGIES OF IM
How To Improve Impression Management :-

 Set goals.
 Commit to the change you want to create.
 Dress appropriately
 Learn to shake hands
 Keep your body language open
 Keep smiling and feel confident
IM Techniques

IM Techniques
Opinion conformity :Agreeing with someone else’s opinion in order to gain his or her approval.
 Example: A manager tells his boss, ‘You are absolutely right on your reorganizations plan for the
western regional office.’
 Excuses: Explanations of a predicament (difficult or embarrassing situation) creating event aimed
at minimizing the apparent severity to the predicament.
 • Example: Sales manager to boss. ‘We failed to get the ad in the paper on time, but no one responds
to those ads anyway’.
 Apologies : Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a
pardon for the section
 • Example: Employee to boss, ‘I’m sorry I made a mistake on the report Please forgive me’.
 IM Techniques
 Self-Promotion
 • Self-Promotion: Highlighting one’s best qualities downplaying one’s deficits (the amount or
score by which a team or individual is losing) and calling attention to one’s achievements. •
Example: A salesperson tells his boss: ‘Matt worked unsuccessfully for three years to try to get
that account I sewed it up in six weeks. I’m the best closer this company has’.
 Flattery
 • Flattery: Complementing others about their behaviour or achievement in an effort to make one
self-appear perceptive and likeable.
 • Example: New sales trainee to peer. ‘You handled that client’s complaint so tactfully! I could
never have handled that as well as you did’.
IM Techniques
 Favors
 • Favors: Doing nice for someone to gain that person’s approval. • Example: Sales
person to prospective client, ‘I’ve got two tickets to the theatre tonight that I can’t
use. Take them. Consider it a thank you for taking the time to talk with me’.
 Association • Association: Enhancing or protecting one’s image by managing
information about people and things with which one is associated. • Example: A job
applicant says to an interviewer, “What a coincidence. Your boss and I were
roommates in college”.
IM TACTICS
 Disadvantages:
However employees need to be noticed in order for organizations growth.
Managers should not assume that employees who do not push themselves are not
ambitious or able as their peers.
Some employees trust the formal HRM systems to provide career opportunities,
underestimating the importance of informal networks for information about senior
posts. Some individuals with potential do not always realize the importance of
"branding “their values and core strengths to their senior managers.
Managers could help those employees by clarifying the kind of performance and
commitment which get rewarded, so that they can make better-informed choices.
 Conclusion
 Perhaps individuals do not want to use IM, but they should know the
unwritten penalties for not delivering and being seen to deliver what
the organization wants and needs.
 Impression-management is neither good nor bad, it is an integral part
of our social interaction and everyone gets involved in it everyday.
 Why Were Emotions Excluded from OB
Study?
 Myth of rationality – emotions were
the antithesis of rationality and
should not be seen in the workplace
 Belief that emotions of any kind are
disruptive in the workplace

7-147
 Emotional Terminology
Affect
 A generic term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people experience

Emotion
 Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something
 Short termed and action-oriented.

Mood
 Feelings that tend to be less intense and longer-lasting than emotions and often
lack a contextual stimulus

7-148
Affect, Emotions, and Moods

7-149
 The Spectrum of
Basic Emotions

• Classifying Moods: Positive and Negative Affect

• Mood States: General groupings of affective emotions
• Positivity Offset: Generally, at zero input, people are in a positive mood

7-150
The Functions of Emotions
 Emotions and Rationality
 Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help in
understanding the world around us.
 Evolutionary Psychology
 Theory that emotions serve an evolutionary purpose:
helps in survival of the gene pool
 The theory is not universally accepted

7-151
 Sources of Emotions and Moods
Day of Week and Time of Day
 More positive interactions will likely occur mid-day and later in the week

7-152
 More Sources
Weather
 No impact according to research

Stress
 Increased stress worsens moods

Social Activities
 Physical, informal, and epicurean activities increase positive mood
Sleep
 Lack of sleep increases negative emotions and impairs decision making

7-153
 Even More Sources

Exercise
 Mildly enhances positive mood

Age
 Older people experience negative emotions less frequently

Gender
 Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more intensely
and display more frequent expressions of emotions
 Could be due to socialization

7-154
 Emotional Labor

An employee’s expression of
organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions at work
Emotional dissonance is when an
employee has to project one emotion while
simultaneously feeling another

7-155
 Felt vs. Displayed Emotions
 Felt Emotions:
 the individual’s actual emotions

 Displayed Emotions:
 the learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and considers
appropriate in a given job

 Surface Acting is hiding one’s true emotions

 Deep Acting is trying to change one’s feelings based on display rules

7-156
Emotional Intelligence
A person’s ability to:
 Be self-aware (to recognize his or
her own emotions as
experienced),
 Detect emotions in others, and
 Manage emotional cues and
information.
Moderately associated with high job
performance

7-157
 Emotional Intelligence on Trial

The case for: The case against:

 Intuitive appeal – it makes  EI is too vague a concept
sense
 EI can’t be measured
 EI predicts criteria that matter –
positively correlated to high  EI is so closely related to
job performance intelligence and personality
 Study suggests that EI is that it is not unique when those
neurologically based factors are controlled

7-158
 OB Applications of
Emotions and Moods
 Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for
jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction
 Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-
solving skills and help us understand and analyze new
information
 Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase
creativity

7-159
 More OB Applications of
Emotions and Moods
 Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more
motivated workforce
 Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively
 Negotiation – Emotions may impair negotiator performance
 Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions from
employees, called emotional contagion

7-160
 Even More OB Applications of
Emotions and Moods
 Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely
carry over to the next day

 Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative

emotions are more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work

7-161
How Can Managers
Influence Moods?
 Use humor to lighten the moment
 Give small tokens of appreciation
 Stay in a good mood themselves –
lead by example
 Hire positive people

7-162
 Global Implications

Does the degree to which people experience emotions vary across

cultures?
Do people’s interpretations of emotions vary across cultures?
Do the norms for the expressions of emotions differ across
cultures?
“YES” to all of the above!
7-163
 Implications for Managers

 Understand the role of emotions and moods to better

explain and predict behavior
 Emotions and moods do affect workplace performance
 While managing emotions may be possible, absolute
control of worker emotions is not

7-164
 Keep in Mind…
 Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills
 People with high EI may be more effective in their jobs
 Managers need to know the emotional norms for each culture
they do business with

7-165
 ATTITUDE
 What is Attitude?
 Attitude is defined as a more or less stable set of predispositions of
opinion, interest or purpose involving expectancy of a certain kind of
experience and readiness with an appropriate response. Attitudes are
also known as “frames of reference“. They provide the background
against which facts and events are viewed.
 Attitude Definitions
 Attitudes are evaluation statements either favourable or unfavourable or unfavourable
concerning objects, people or events. They reflect how one feels about something.-Robbins
 Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a
directive or dynamic influence upon individual’s response to all objects and situations with which
it is related.-G.W. Allport
 Attitude as an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual and cognitive
processes with respect to some aspect of the individual’s world.-Krech and Crutchfield
Components of Attitude
 Components of Attitude
 Cognitive component: Cognitive component of attitude is associated with the value
statement. It consists of values, belief, ideas and other information that a person may
have faith in.
 Example: Quality of sincere hard is a faith or value statement that a manager may
have.
 Affective component: Affective component of attitude is associated with individual
feelings about another person, which may be positive, neutral or negative.
 Example: I don’t like Sam because he is not honest, or I like Sam because he is
sincere. It is an expression of feelings about a person, object or a situation.
 https://www.iedunote.com/attitude-definition-characteristics-types
 Behavioral component: Behavioural component of attitude is
associated with the impact of various condition or situations that
lead to person behaviour based on cognitive and affective
components.
 Example: I don’t like Sam because he is not honest is an affective
component, I, therefore, would like to disassociate myself with him,
is a behavioural component and therefore I would avoid Sam.

Characteristics of Attitudes
Attitude is predispositions of purpose, interest or opinion of the person to assess some
objects in a favorable or an unfavorable manner.
 Attitude are different from values: Values are the ideals, whereas attitudes are narrow,
they are our feelings.
 Attitude are evaluative statements: either favorable or unfavorable concerning the
objects, people or events.
 Attitude influence human behavior: A positive attitude towards a thing will influence
human behavior towards the thing favorably and vice-versa.
 Attitude have intensity: It refers to the strength of the effective component. For example,
we may dislike an individual but the extent of our disliking would determine the
intensity of our attitude towards the person.
 Functions of Attitude
 Adjustment Function: Attitudes often help individuals to adjust to their work
environment.
 Example: Well-treated employees tend to develop a positive attitude towards their
management or job.
 Ego defensive function: Attitudes help people to retain their self- image and dignity.
Example: Older faculty might feel somewhat threatened by a young and new faculty
member who is full of fresh ideas and enthusiasm
 Value-Expressive Function: Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for
expressing their values. Example, a manager who values honest and sincere work
will be more vocal against an employee who is having a very casual approach
towards work.
 Knowledge Function: Attitudes provide frames of reference or standard that allows
individuals to understand and perceive the world around him. Example, If a
student has a strong negative attitude towards the college, whatever the college
does, the student will be perceived as something ‘bad’ and as actually against them.
Types of Attitude
 There are broadly three types of attitude in term
of organisational behaviour
 Job satisfaction
 Job involvement
 Organizational commitment
Attitude Formation
 Experiences
 Perceptual biases
 Observation of the other person’s attitude
 Association
 Personality
Importance of attitude in organisational behaviour
 Theories of Attitude
 Balance Theory
 Congruity Theory
 Affective Cognitive Consistency Theory
 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Balance Theory: Balance Theory is concerned with consistency in the judgement of people and or issues that are linked by some
form of relationship.
There are three elements:
 Person
 Other person
 Impersonal entity
 There are two types of relationship to connect these three types of elements
 The linking relations or sentiments
 The unit relation
 Both linking and unit relations are positive or negative towards any object or person or stimuli etc. or these three types of
elements.
 Theories of Attitude
 Congruity Theory:Congruity theory is similar to balance theory. The focus of the theory
is on changes in evolution of a source and a concept that are linked by an associative
or dissociative assertion.
 Congruity exists when a source and concept positively associated have exactly the
same evaluation, and when a source and concept that are negatively associated have
exactly the opposite evaluation attached to him.
 Affective Cognitive Consistency Theory:
 The theory is also called structural because it is concerned with what happens
within the individual when an attitude changes. It is concerned with the consistency
between a person’s overall attitude towards an object or issue and it’s his beliefs
about the relationship.
 Cognitive dissonance theory:
 Cognitive structure means end relationship between the object or issue and the
achievement of desired undesired values of goals.
 https://www.simplypsychology.org/attitude-measurement.html
 CONCEPT OF VALUES
 A value is defined as a "concept of the desirable, an internalized criterion or
standard of evaluation a person possesses. Such concept and standards are
relatively few and determine or guide an individual's evaluation in every day life.
 Milton Rokeach, a noted psychologist, has defined values as giobal beliefs that
guide actions and judgments across a variety of situations. He further said, "Values
represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct (or end-state of
existence) is personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct (or
end-state of existence)".
 CHARACTERISTICS OF VALUES
 Values provide standards of morality.
 Values are relatively permanent and resistant to change.
 Values are most central to the core of a person. 
 Values have two attributes-content and intensity. The content attribute stresses
that a particular code of conduct is important. The intensity attribute specifies
how important that particular code of conduct.
 Values transcend specific objects, situations or persons.
 Values are fewer in number than attitudes.
 Values. Perceptions – Importance – Factors
influencing perception – Interpersonal perception–
Impression Management. Motivation– Theories –
Importance – Types – Effects on work behavior.
 Perception Meaning

 The word Perception comes from the Latin words, “percipio” meaning “receiving,

collecting, action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind or senses”.
 Perception Definition
 A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in
order to give meaning to their environment-Stephen P. Robbins
Perception in Organizational Behavior
Why is perception important in the study of Organisational Behaviour?
Simply because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality
itself. The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important.
For example, in appraising performance, managers use their perceptions of an employee’s
behaviour as a basis for evaluation. One work situation that highlights the importance of
perception is the selection interview. Perception is also culturally determined. Based on our
cultural backgrounds, we tend to perceive things in certain ways.
Nature of perception
 Perception is the process by which an individual gives meaning to the
environment.
 People‘s actions, emotions, thoughts and feelings are triggered by their perceptions
of their surroundings.
 Perception has been defined in a variety of ways; it basically refers to the manner in
which a person experiences the world.
 Perception is an almost automatic process and works in the same way within each
individual, yet it typically yields different perceptions.
 Factors that Influence Perception
 Characteristics of the Perceiver
 Characteristics of the Target
 Characteristics of the Situation
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Characteristics of the Target
Organization of Target:
 People tend to organize the various parts of elements in the environment as a
meaningful whole. Such organizing activity is a cognitive process and those are
based on Gestalt Principles. The following are the four Gestalt Principles –
 Figure and Ground
 Proximity
 Similarity
 Closure
 Continuation
Characteristics of the Situation
Managerial Implications of Perceptions

 Employment Interview
 Performance Evaluation
 Performance Expectations
 Employee Loyalty
Motivation
 What is Motivation?
 Motivation is defined as inner burning passion caused by need, wants and desire which propels
an individual to exert his physical and mental energy to achieve desired objectives.
 Motivation is goal-directed behaviour. People are motivated when they expect that a course of
action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward – one that satisfies their
needs and wants.
 Three components of motivation
 Direction: what a person is trying to do.
 Effort: how hard a person is trying.
 Persistence: how long a person keeps on trying.

Motivation Definition
Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organisational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual needs.-Stephen P
Robbins
 It is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action.-George R.
Terry
 It is the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or needs direct,
control or explains the behaviour of human beings.-D.E. McFarland
 It is a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals.-Scot
 Motivation
Motivation Meaning
Motivation comes from the Latin word “movere” which means, “to move“.
Concept of Motivation
Need: A need is a condition of lack or deficit of something required by the organism/person.
Motives: Motive is defined as an inner state that energises, activates (or moves) and directs (or
channelizes) the behaviour towards certain goals.
Types of motivation
The two types of motivation are:
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Types of motivation
Characteristics of motivation
 Motivation is a psychological phenomenon: It is the inner desire of an individual to achieve something
more. More is the individual motivated better performance and organization relations.
 Motivation is a continuous process: Since need and desire are endless so the need is a continuous
phenomenon if one need is satisfied the other need emerges.
 Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an action.
Perceived value is the probability or expectancy. motivation= value × expectancy.
 Motivation varies from person to person and time to time
Motivation is different for different persons and it also varied according to time and place because
wants are different for different people, according to time and places.
 An individual is motivated by positive or negative motivation
Positive motivation is based on incentives or reward. Incentive can be monetary and non-monetary.
 Negative motivation is based on penalties, calling for explanation, threats, fear, etc. Fear of losing the
job or promotion
Importance of Motivation
 High level of performance
 Low employee turn over and absenteeism
 Acceptance of organization change
 Organizational image
Motivation theories
Maslow – hierarchy of needs
 Alderfer – ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs and
 growth needs
Alderfer (Furnham, 2008) distinguished three steps or classes of needs: existence, relatedness and
growth. Maslow’s physiological and safety needs belong together to existence needs. Relatedness can be
harmonised to belongingness and esteem of others. Growth is the same as Maslow’s self-esteem plus
self-actualization. Both Maslow and Alderfer tried to describe how these needs, these stages of needs
become more or less important to individuals.
 • Existence needs: These include needs for basic material necessities. In short, it includes an individual’s
physiological and physical safety needs.
 • Relatedness needs: Individuals need significant relationships (be with family, peers or superiors), love
and belongingness, they strive toward reaching public fame and recognition. This class of needs
contain Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem needs.
 • Growth needs: Need for self-development, personal growth and advancement form together this class
of need. This class of needs contain Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of
esteem needs.
Alderfer – ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs
McCLELLAND THREE NEEDS THEORY
McClelland THREE NEEDS THEORY
HERZBERG TWO-FACTOR THEORY
HERZBERG TWO-FACTOR THEORY
HERZBERG TWO-FACTOR THEORY
Comparison of three theories
Summary of Content Theories of Motivation

Maslow Alderfer McClelland Herzberg

Physiological
Safety and security Existence
Belongingness and love Relatedness Need for Affiliation Hygiene
Self-esteem Need for power
Self-actualization Growth Need for achievement Motivators
Vroom’s expectancy theory
Vroom’s expectancy theory
EQUITY THEORY
EQUITY THEORY
Locke's goal setting theory

 Locke's (1990) goal setting theory is an integrative

model of motivation just like the expectancy theory.
 It emphasizes that setting specific, challenging
performance goals and the commitment to these goals
are key determinants of motivation. Goals describe a
desired future, and these established goals can drive the
behaviour. Achieving the goals, the goal accomplishment
further motivates individuals to perform.
Locke's goal setting theory
Skinner's reinforcement theory

 Skinner's reinforcement theory

 The Reinforcement theory, based on Skinner's operant conditioning theory, says
that behaviour can be formed by its consequences (Gordon, 1987).
 According to the theory, positive reinforcement is a much better motivational
technique than punishment because punishment:
 • tries to stop undesirable behaviour and does not offer an alternative behaviour
 • creates bad feelings, negative attitudes toward the activity, and the person who
gives the punishment
 • suppresses behaviour, but does not permanently eliminate it.