BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS

OF CELL
Schwann’s Cell Theory

 All organisms are made of

cells

 Cells are the fundamental

unit of life

Theodor Schwann
(1810-1882)
 Cells come from other
cells
 Major types of cell

PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC

CELLS
PRO-Before, KARYON-Nucleus
Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus

EU-True, KARYON-Nucleus
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus
 COMPARISON
CHARACTERISTIC PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

SIZE Generally small Generally large

(1-10μm) (5-100μm)
GENOME • DNA with non histone • DNA complexed with
protein histone & non histone
• Genome in nucleoid, proteins in chromosomes
not surrounded by • Chromosomes in
membrane. nucleus with
• Chromosomes are membranous envelop
circular • Chromosomes are
linear
CELL DIVISION Fission or budding, no Mitosis including mitotic
mitosis spindle; centrioles in
many species
CHARACTERISTIC PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

MEMBRANE BOUND Absent Present, like

ORGANELLES mitochondria , ER, Golgi-
apparatus, lysosomes.
CYTOSKELETON None Complex with
microtubules,
intermediate filaments
etc.
PLASMA MEMBRANE Protected by a cell wall Plasma membrane & no
which is more cell wall
substantial than the
plasma membrane of
animal cells
FUNCTIONS:
 The human body is composed of trillions of cells
having 200 distinct types. This great variation reflects
the variety of functions that a cell can perform.
 They provide structure for the body, take in
nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into
energy, and carry out specialized functions.
 Metabolism
 Transport processes
 Cells also contain the body's hereditary material
and can make copies of themselves.
CELL MEMBRANE
 CELL MEMBRANE
 The cell membrane/plasma
membrane that envelops the cell, is a
thin, pliable, elastic structure only 7.5-
10 nm.

Molecular
components/constituents:
 Proteins
 Polar lipids
 Carbohydrates
 FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE
 Protective outer covering
 Anchors the cytoskeleton and gives shape to the

cell
 Attaches the cell to extracellular matrix
 Receives signals and converts them into signals
 Membranes possess receptors for hormones,

neurotransmitters & growth factors

 Transport:

Selective permeability
Ion channels
 MOLECULAR COMPONENTS

PROTEINS & LIPIDS:

Plasma membrane is composed almost entirely of

proteins & lipids – their relative proportion vary with the
type of membrane e.g., certain neurons have myelin
sheath – rich in lipids while inner mitochondrial
membrane is very rich in proteins. Plasma membrane of
RBCs has about 20 major types of proteins as well as
dozen of minor proteins. Many of these are transporters
each moving specific solutes across the membrane.
The ratio of proteins to lipids in defferent membranes

0.2
3

1.
1

3.2
The Approximate Composition Of Cell Membrane

Proteins: 55 ٪
Phospholipids: 25 ٪
Cholesterol: 13 ٪
Other lipids: 04 ٪
Carbohydrates: 03 ٪
 PROTEINS

Two types of proteins are found in plasma

membrane:

1. Peripheral proteins
2. Integral proteins
 PERIPHERAL PROTEINS
 Peripheral proteins are attached only to one face of
membrane and do not penetrate all the way
through.
 Peripheral proteins do not interact directly with the
hydrophobic cores of the phospholipids in the
bilayer and thus do not require use of detergents
for their release.
 They are weakly bound to the hydrophilic regions
of specific integral proteins and head groups of
phospholipids and can be released from them by
treatment with salt solutions of high ionic strength.
 INTEGRAL PROTEINS
Integral membrane proteins span the full thickness of
bilayer and protrude from both inner and outer
membrane surfaces.
As integral membrane proteins interact extensively with

the phospholipids, they require the use of detergents for

their solubilization.
Integral membrane proteins are very firmly associated

with the membrane- due to hydrophobic interactions

between membrane lipids and hydrophobic domains of
the proteins.
FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS:
Integral Membrane Proteins
1. Many of the integral proteins provide structural
channels (or pores) through which water molecules
& water soluble substances, especially ions, can
diffuse b/w the ECF & ICF. These protein channel
also have selective properties that allow preferential
diffusion of some substances over others e.g.
Aquaporins.
2. Other integral proteins act as carrier proteins for
transporting substances that otherwise could not
penetrate the lipid bilayer.
 Sometimes these even transport substances in the
direction opposite to their natural direction of
diffusion, which is called ‘active transport’.
Glucose transporters (GLUT 1-5) are integral
membrane proteins that transport glucose.
3. Some integral membrane proteins act as enzymes
e.g.
 Na+ - K+ ATPase
 Adenylyl cyclase
 Guanylyl cyclase
4. Integral membrane proteins also serve as receptors
for water soluble chemicals, such as peptide
hormones, they do not easily penetrate the cell
membrane e.g.
 Insulin receptor
 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

5. Some integral membrane proteins mediate cell-cell

interactions & adhesions e.g.
 Integrins
 INTEGRINS
Integrins are integral membrane proteins consist of α & β
transmembrane polypeptides, their extracellular domains
combine to form binding sites for metal ions, proteins of
extracellular matrix such as collagen & fibronectin or specific
surface proteins of other cells.
FUNCTIONS:
a. Adhesive
b. Receptors
c. Signal transducers
d. Regulate many processes including platelet
aggregation at site of wound.
 PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
1. Most of the peripheral membrane proteins function
as enzymes e.g.
 Alkaline Phosphatase

 Acetyl –Cholinesterase

 Lipoprotein Lipase

2. Also act as controllers of transport of substances

through the cell membrane pores.
3. Certain peripheral membrane proteins interact with
the cytoskeleton. These interactions are essential for
integrity of cell e.g.
 Ankyrin
 Spectrin

4. Specific proteins are involved in signal transduction

pathway e.g.
 Gs (G-stimulatory)
 Gi (G-inhibitory)
 LIPIDS

Lipids are the basic structural component of

plasma membrane.
TYPES OF LIPIDS:
1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS
i. Glycerophospholipids – are most abundant
ii. Sphingolipids – common in myelin sheath
2. STEROL
Cholesterol
 PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Phospholipids have two parts:

1. Polar head group: It is hydrophilic portion that
interacts with water at each surface of the bilayer
(faces ICF & ECF).
2. Non polar fatty acyl chains – Tail: It is the
hydrophobic portion of phospholipid molecules.
The hydrophobic portion of phospholipid
molecules are repelled by water but are mutually
attracted to one another, they have a natural
tendency to attach to one another in the middle of
the membrane.
 The lipid layer in the middle of the membrane is
impermeable to water soluble substances, such
as ions, glucose & urea.

 Conversely, fat soluble substances, such as

oxygen, CO2 , & alcohol can penetrate this
portion of the membrane with ease.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS: STRUCTURE

ECF
hdrophilic
Hydrophilic

Hydrophobic

Hydrophilic
ICF
 STEROL – CHOLESTEROL
 Cholesterol is a very hydrophobic compound
(four fused rings, A, B, C, D,& it has 8- carbon,
branched hydrocarbon chain attached to C- 17 of
the D ring). The only hydrophilic portion is the -
OH group attached at C- 3 of the A ring.

 Cholesterol intercalates among the

phospholipids with its -OH group at the aqueous
interface & remainder within the leaflet.
 FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE LIPIDS

1. Phospholipids form bilayer.

2. Certain lipids determine fluidity of plasma membrane:

Cholesterol
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (components of

phospholipids)

3. Provide permeability barrier for water soluble molecules.

4. Provide a hydrophobic region in which part or major
part of membrane proteins are embedded.

5. Provide site for attachment of :

 Peripheral proteins (electrostatic interactions)
 Oligosaccharide chains
CARBOHYDRATES:
No free CHO in the plasma membrane.

CHOs are present as part of glycoproteins or

glycolipids.
CARBOHYDRATES (The Cell
Glycocalyx)

 No free CHOs in membrane

 Occur almost invariably in combination with

proteins or lipids in the form of glycoproteins

or glycolipids.
 In fact, most of the integral membrane proteins

are glycoproteins & about 1/10th of the

membrane lipid molecules are glycolipids.
 One or several oligosaccharides are joined

covalently to proteins.
 The glycoportions of these molecules almost
invariably protrudes to the outside of the cell,
dangling outward from the cell surface.
 Many other CHO compounds called

PROTEOGLYCANS which are mainly CHO

substances bound to small protein cores – are
loosely attached to the outer surface of the cell
as well.
Thus the entire outside surface of the cell often
has a loose CHO coat is called the
GLYCOCALYX.
 FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE CHOs
1. Many of them have negative electrical charge which
gives most cells an overall negative surface charge
that repels other negative objects.
2. The glycocalyx of some cells attaches to the
glycocalyx of other cells, thus attaching cells to one
another.
3. CHOs play an important role in cell-cell recognition.
4. Many of the CHOs act as receptor substance for
binding hormones.
Membrane carbohydrates are important
for cell-cell recognition
 Cell-cell recognition: The ability of a cell to
distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another.
 Cell-cell recognition is crucial in the functioning of
an organism. It is the basis for:
Sorting of cells into tissues and organs in an
animal embryo’s cell.
Rejection of foreign cells by the immune system.
 The way cells recognize other cells is probably by
keying on surface molecules (markers)

Markers: Surface molecules found on the external

surface of the plasma membrane that distinguish
one cell from another.
NUCLEUS:
A complex membrane bound
structure that contains genetic
information in the form of
chromosomes, whose principle
constituent is DNA.