1. The document discusses various biological treatment methods for solid and hazardous waste including composting, bioreactors, and in-situ remediation.
2. Composting is described as a process where organic waste decomposes under controlled conditions through microbial action, reducing its volume by 50%.
3. Several composting methods are outlined, including windrow composting, vermicomposting, vessel composting, and Indian and Indore composting methods. Each method has advantages and disadvantages related to factors like cost, labor requirements, and speed of decomposition.
1. The document discusses various biological treatment methods for solid and hazardous waste including composting, bioreactors, and in-situ remediation.
2. Composting is described as a process where organic waste decomposes under controlled conditions through microbial action, reducing its volume by 50%.
3. Several composting methods are outlined, including windrow composting, vermicomposting, vessel composting, and Indian and Indore composting methods. Each method has advantages and disadvantages related to factors like cost, labor requirements, and speed of decomposition.
1. The document discusses various biological treatment methods for solid and hazardous waste including composting, bioreactors, and in-situ remediation.
2. Composting is described as a process where organic waste decomposes under controlled conditions through microbial action, reducing its volume by 50%.
3. Several composting methods are outlined, including windrow composting, vermicomposting, vessel composting, and Indian and Indore composting methods. Each method has advantages and disadvantages related to factors like cost, labor requirements, and speed of decomposition.
Solid and Hazardous Waste Composting; bioreactors;
anaerobic decomposition of solid waste; principles of biodegradation of toxic waste; inhibition; co- metabolism; oxidative and reductive processes; slurry phase bioreactor; in-situ remediation. Composting Composting is a biological process in which the organic portion of refuse is allowed to decompose under carefully controlled conditions. Microbes metabolize the organic waste material and reduce its volume by as much as 50 percent. The stabilized product is called compost or humus. It resembles potting soil in texture and odour and may be used as a soil conditioner or mulch. • Composting offers a method of processing and recycling both garbage and sewage sludge in one operation. As more stringent environmental rules and siting constraints limit the use of solid- waste incineration and landfill options, the application of composting is likely to increase. The steps involved in the process include sorting and separating, size reduction, and digestion of the refuse. Sorting and shredding • The decomposable materials in refuse are isolated from glass, metal, and other inorganic items through sorting and separating operations. • These are carried out mechanically, using differences in such physical characteristics of the refuse as size, density, and magnetic properties. • Shredding or pulverizing reduces the size of the waste articles, resulting in a uniform mass of material. It is accomplished with hammer mills and rotary shredders. Digesting and processing • Pulverized waste is ready for composting either by the open windrow method or in an enclosed mechanical facility. • Windrows are long, low mounds of refuse. They are turned or mixed every few days to provide air for the microbes digesting the organics. • Depending on moisture conditions, it may take five to eight weeks for complete digestion of the waste. • Because of the metabolic action of aerobic bacteria, temperatures in an active compost pile reach about 65 °C (150 °F), killing pathogenic organisms that may be in the waste material. • Open windrow composting requires relatively large land areas. • Enclosed mechanical composting facilities can reduce land requirements by about 85 percent. • Mechanical composting systems employ one or more closed tanks or digesters equipped with rotating vanes that mix and aerate the shredded waste. • Complete digestion of the waste takes about one week. • Digested compost must be processed before it can be used as a mulch or soil conditioner. • Processing includes drying, screening, and granulating or pelletizing. • These steps improve the market value of the compost, which is the most serious constraint to the success of composting as a waste management option. • Agricultural demand for digested compost is usually low because of the high cost of transporting it and because of competition with inorganic chemical fertilizers. Fertilizer–Environment Impact • Fertilizer is defined as any substance of natural or synthetic origin that is added to soil to supply certain elements crucial for plant growth . • Fertilizer is required to be applied to the soil to replace the nutrients taken up by crop from the land with the primary goal of maximizing productivity and economic returns Fertilizer–Environment Impact • chemical fertilizers have been said to be toxic to soil organisms such as earthworms, which are well known to promote soil fertility as a case study. Fertilizers can be grouped into organic or inorganic fertilizer according to their source of production Fertilizer–Environment Impact • Organic fertilizer is a fertilizer that is produced from organic substances or materials which could be biofertilizers or composts, e.g., plants and animals remain, while inorganic fertilizer is made from synthetic or inorganic raw materials. • The deleterious effect caused by the chemical fertilizers on the environment through chemical toxicity and leaching into the waterways thereby affecting aquatic life directly or indirectly has necessitated the need for safer alternatives. Some alternatives have been proposed such as the use of microorganisms, composting, among others. Composting Methods • There are different composting methods, with each method having its advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, the method that best suits the goal of the researcher and the type of material to be composted dictates the composting method to be adopted. Some of the composting methods are enumerated below Indian Bangalore Composting • The Indian Bangalore composting method was developed at Bangalore in India . The method is majorly recommended for the composting of night soil and refuse. The composting is carried out by digging trenches or pits about one meter deep where organic residues and night soil are put in alternate layers . The pit is finally covered with a 15–20 cm thick layer of refuse Indian Bangalore Composting • The materials are left in the pit without turning or watering for three months. During this period, there is a reduction in the volume of the materials, and more night soil and refuse are placed on top in alternate layers and covered with mud or earth to prevent loss of moisture and breeding of flies. This type of composting takes about six to eight months to obtain the finished product . This method is laborious and expensive to support Vessel Composting • In-vessel composting refers to any type of composting conducted in an enclosed area such as a container, building, or vessel. In- vessel methods depend on a variety of forced aeration and mechanical turning techniques to enhance the composting process . This method is labor-intensive and expensive. Windrow Composting • Windrow composting is conducted by placing raw materials in long narrow piles or windrows, which are turned regularly. The mixing of the materials allows aeration into the setup. A typical windrow composting set up should start from 3 feet in height for dense materials like manures and 12 feet high for fluffy materials like leaves . It is difficult, and costly to support, but it is rapid and retains heat Vermicomposting • The term refers to the use of earthworms for composting degradable organic matters . Earthworms can degrade practically all kinds of organic matter by feeding on them. They can eat their body weight per day. For example, earthworms that weigh 0.1 kilogram can eat 0.1 kilogram of residue per day. The excreta of the worms— termed “castings”—are rich in nitrate, as well as available forms of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, which improve soil fertility . The existence of earthworms in the soil promotes bacterial and actinomycetes growth. Static Composting • This is a traditional method of composting where wastes are composted aerobically using passive aeration (little and infrequent turnings or static aerations like perforated poles or pipes). • This method is time-consuming, though it is a simple way of composting, which has low operational and capital costs compared to vermicomposting, windrow, vessel, and Indian Bangalore composting. • This method simply involves the formation of a pile of raw materials and has a low requirement of labor and equipment. Aeration is based mainly on the passive movement of air through the pile, thereby degrading the organic matter slowly Sheet Composting • Sheet composting release the benefit of decayed organic material without building a composting pile. In this method, organic matters such as leaves, garden debris, grass clippings, weeds, and vegetative food are thinly spread directly onto the soil as a mulch. • The organic materials are then tilled in with a hoe, spade or garden fork and left to decay there, rather than in a heap or container. • One or more layers of organic material(s) are spreads over the growing area, watered thoroughly and left to decompose until planting time. More layers of organic materials are placed at the bottom layers decompose thoroughly. • The method is cheap and straightforward. Indian Indore Composting • Indian Indore method involves a mixture of raw materials such as plant residues, animal dung, and urine, earth, wood ash, and water. All organic wastes available on a farm such as weeds, stalks, stems, fallen leaves, pruning, chaff, fodder leftovers are made into a layer about 15-cm- thick until the heap is about one and a half meters high. The heap is cut into vertical slices of about 20–25 kg for the night rest. The bedding is taken to the composting pits and filled layer by layer within a week. Enough quantity of water is sprinkled over the materials in the pit to wet them. • Moisturizing of the compost is done only three times throughout the whole period of composting. The moisturizing is done on the fifteenth day after stacking the compost pit, on the next 15 days after the first moisturizing and finally after one month after the first moisturizing. This method is labor- intensive and time-consuming. It is also prone to flies, and pest disturbances and wind can lead to loss of nutrients Berkley Rapid Composting • This is a fast composting method. Here, materials compost faster if the size is between 0.5–1.5 inches in size. Soft, succulent tissues do not need to be chopped in very small pieces because they decompose rapidly. • The harder the tissues, the smaller they need to be chopped to enhance decomposition. Once a pile is started, nothing should be added because it takes a certain length of time for the initial materials to break down, and anything added has to start from the initial breakdown stage—thus lengthening the decomposition time for the whole pile Uses of Compost • Increase in Soil Fertility, Crop Yield, Erosion Control, and Soil Amendment
• Biocontrol of Diseases, Bioremediation and
Safe Waste Management Major Elements in Compost • For compost to be useful, it must have some elements in an optimum quantity which will supply adequate nutrients to plants. Though these elements may not be necessary if the compost is meant for landfills. 1. Nitrogen 2. Phosphorus 3. Potassium Biochemistry of Composting Factors Aecting Composting Temperature and Carbon to Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio • Temperature is an essential factor in composting because it helps to hasten the composting process and eliminate pathogenic organisms that are harmful to soil organisms, plants, animals, and humans . • Microorganisms present during the composting process are classified according to the temperature at which they exist. Microorganisms growing at 20–40 C are classified as mesophilic organisms, while those growing above 40–70 C are thermophilic bacteria. Temperature and Carbon to Nitrogen (C:N) Ratio • Mesophilic organisms start the composting process; they break down the readily degradable compounds of the waste. • Their metabolism leads to a rapid increase in compost temperature. The volume of the wastes treated sometimes aects the temperature (heat generation); • if the volume of waste is low, the high temperature may not be attained. Sometimes the temperature during composting does not rise to 45 C, but pathogens could die when nutrients present in the composting materials are exhausted and when competitive organism excrete enzymes which are capable of destroying the pathogens. • An ideal C:N of 30 is optimum for a composting process . When composting materials are low in C:N, air will fail to penetrate the pile, which results in anaerobic conditions and causes odor production in addition to nitrogen loss in the form of ammonia gas. In addition, if the C/N ratio is too high, the activities of microorganisms will be reduced, and the rate of decomposition will be slow Oxygen and pH • The presence of oxygen is important during the composting process. When organisms oxidize carbon for energy formation, the oxygen present is used up, and gases are produced. Without adequate oxygen, the composting process will become anaerobic, and gases (methane, carbon dioxide, and ammonia) will be produced, leading to the production of undesirable odors . • The pH of the materials that are composted aects the composting rate. Alkaline pH has been reported to be best for composting. When pH is acidic, composting is very slow because the microorganisms are destroyed Moisture Content, Particle Size, and Raw Material Texture • Moisture is a key factor that supports the metabolic activities of microbes. The moisture content for composting materials should be maintained between 40% to 60% . • The presence of moisture in compost was reported to come from either the initial water added or the metabolic water produced by the actions of the microorganism. • Excess water leads to a reduction in the diffusion of oxygen, and this, in turn, reduces the metabolic activities of the organisms. Microbial cells fully depend onwater for their metabolic activities. Thus the metabolism of organic molecules by microorganisms isonly possible when such organic molecules have been dissolved in water. Moisture decreases as the composting process proceeds Moisture Content, Particle Size, and Raw Material Texture • Best composting conditions are usually attained when the material’s particle size ranges from 1 to 2 inches in diameter . This size brings about a higher surface area, which helps to increase microbial activity as well as the composting process. • The rate at which aerobic decomposition takes place increases as the particle size decreases. However, extremely Small particles may reduce the oxygen movement within the pile, thereby reducing the composting rate. Besides, tiny particle size encourages moisture retention and reduces airspace thus leading to a decrease in the composting process. • Degradable organic materials with hard texture, high lignin or though texture generally composts slowly . For instance, hard, textured leaves have a high tendency to compost slower than soft textured leaves. Leaves that have thorns also may take a longer time to compost because of their physical barrier. Leaves with leathery or hard texture may be due to high lignin content.