Cell Division

Cell division
Dr. Subeer
Introduction
 The cell cycle is an ordered series of events
involving cell growth and cell division that
produces two new daughter cells.
 A cell has a life cycle extending from one
division to the next.

 The cell cycle has two major phases:
1. Interphase
2. Mitotic phase
Cont
 During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is
replicated.
 During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA
and cytoplasmic contents are separated and

the cell divides.
Diagram
Interphase
 During interphase, the cell undergoes normal
processes while also preparing for cell
division.
 The three stages of interphase are
1. G1 (or Gap one) phase
2. S (synthesis phase) phase

3. G2 (Gap 2) phase
G1 Phase
 is an interval between cell division and DNA
replication.
 During this time, a cell synthesizes proteins
and grows.
 they accumulate the materials needed in the
next phase to replicate their DNA.

S Phase
 a cell carries out DNA replication.
 Each of its DNA molecules uncoils into two
separate strands, and each strand acts as a

template for the synthesis of the missing
strand.
G2 Phase
 Is a brief interval between DNA replication
and cell division.
 In G2, a cell finishes replicating its centrioles
and synthesizes enzymes that control cell

division.
 May be additional cell growth during G .
2
 The final preparations for the mitotic phase
must be completed before the cell is able to
enter the first stage of mitosis.
Length of cell cycle
 The length of the cell cycle varies greatly
from one cell type to another.
 Cultured connective tissue cells called
fibroblasts divide about once a day and spend

8 to 10 hours in G1, 6 to 8 hours in S, 4 to 6
hours in G2, and 1 to 2 hours in M.
 Stomach and skin cells divide rapidly, bone
and cartilage cells slowly, and skeletal muscle

and nerve cells not at all.
Cont
 Some cells leave the cell cycle for a “rest” and
cease to divide for days, years, or the rest of
one’s life.
 Such cells are said to be in the G0 (G-zero)
phase.
 The balance between cells that are actively
cycling and those standing by in G0 is an
important factor in determining the number of
cells in the body.
 An inability to stop cycling and enter G0 is
characteristic of cancer cells.
Mitotic (M) phase
 is the period in which a cell replicates its
nucleus, divides its DNA into two identical
sets (one per nucleus), and pinches in two to
form two genetically identical daughter cells.
 Mitosis phase include:
a. Mitosis (karyokinesis): nuclear division

• Daughter chromosomes distributed in two
daughter nuclei.
b. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm division
• Results in two genetically identical daughter cells.
Diagram
Cell division
 Cells divide by two mechanisms called
mitosis and meiosis.
 Meiosis: the production of eggs and sperm
 Mitosis serves all the other functions of cell
division: its importance

◦ the development of an individual from a one-celled
fertilized egg
◦ continued growth of all the organs after birth
◦ the replacement of cells that die
◦ the repair of damaged tissues.
Mitosis
 Has four phases
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Prophase
 Chromosomes condense
 Nuclear envelope breaks down.
 Spindle fibers grow from centrioles.
 Centrioles migrate to opposite poles of cell.
 Metaphase
 Chromosomes lie along midline of cell.
 Some spindle fibers attach to kinetochores.
 Fibers of aster attach to plasma membrane.
Anaphase
 Centromeres divide in two.
 Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids to
opposite poles of cell.
 Each pole (future daughter cell) now has an
identical set of genes.
 Telophase
 Chromosomes gather at each pole of cell.
 Chromatin decondenses.
 New nuclear envelope appears at each pole.
 New nucleoli appear in each nucleus.
 Mitotic spindle vanishes.
Cont
Cont
 Telophase is the end of nuclear division.
 Cytokinesis division of the cytoplasm, begins in
anaphase and extends through the end of
telophase.
 It is achieved by the motor protein myosin
pulling on microfilaments of actin in the
membrane skeleton.
 This creates a crease called the cleavage furrow
around the equator of the cell, and the cell
eventually pinches in two.
 Interphase has now begun for these new cells.
Results of mitosis
 Two daughter nuclei
 Each with same
chromosome number
as parent cell (2n)
 Genetically identical to
each other and the
parent cell
Results: 2 daughter cells Diagram

Meiosis
 Formation of gametes ( egg and sperm)
 Called reduction-division.
 Preceded by interphase which includes
chromosome replication.
 Two meiotic divisions
◦ Meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

 Original cell is diploid (2n)
 Four daughter cells produced that are haploid
(n).
Importance of meiosis
 Two haploid (1n) gametes are brought
together thru fertilization to form a diploid
(2n) zygote.
 Meiosis must reduce the chromosome
number by half.
 Fertilization then restores the 2n number
Meiosis 1
 Early prophase I
 Chromatin condenses to form visible
chromosomes;
 each chromosome has 2 chromatids joined by a
centromere.
 Mid- to late prophase I
 Homologous chromosomes form pairs called
tetrads.
 Chromatids often break and exchange segments
(crossing-over).
 Centrioles produce spindle fibers.
 Nuclear envelope disintegrates.
Metaphase 1
 Tetrads align on equatorial plane of cell with
centromeres attached to spindle fibers.
 Anaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate
to opposite poles of the cell.
 Telophase I
 New nuclear envelopes form around chromosome
 cell undergoes cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis).
 Each cell is now haploid.
Meiosis 2
 Prophase II
 Nuclear envelopes disintegrate again
 chromosomes still consist of 2 chromatids.
 New spindle forms.
 Metaphase II
 Chromosomes align on equatorial plane.
Cont
 Anaphase II
 Centromeres divide
 sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles
of cell.
 Each chromatid now constitutes a single-
stranded chromosome.
 Telophase II
 New nuclear envelopes form around
chromosomes
 chromosomes uncoil and become less visible
 cytoplasm divides.
Cont
Control of the Cell Cycle
 Throughout the cell cycle, there are various
quality control check points which function to
ensure that various cellular conditions are met
before proceeding to the next phase of the
cycle.
 The timing of events in the cell cycle is
controlled by mechanisms that are both internal

and external to the cell.
 These quality control check points are carried
out by a family of proteins called cyclins and

cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs).
Cont
 1. Intracellular control of the cell cycle
◦ Positive: cyclins and CDKs
◦ Negative: RB and P53
 2. Extracellular control of the cell cycle

◦ A. mitogens
◦ B. growth factors
◦ C. survival factors
Regulation of the Cell Cycle by
External factors
 Both the initiation and inhibition of cell division
are triggered by events external to the cell when
it is about to begin the replication process.
 A lack of HGH can inhibit cell division, resulting
in dwarfism.
 Crowding of cells can also inhibit cell division.
Another factor that can initiate cell division is
the size of the cell; as a cell grows, it becomes
inefficient due to its decreasing surface-to-
volume ratio. The solution to this problem is to
divide.
Cyclins
 They are proteins which binds to enzymes
called cyclin dependent kinase (CDK).
 Cyclins are called cyclins because their
concentration and expression cycles

throughout cell cycle.
 Many types of cyclins exist which bind to
different types of CDKs.

Diagram
Cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs)
 CDKs are enzymes which activate the proteins
required for progression through cell cycle
and its check points.
 CDKs achieve this by phosphorylating certain
domains on target proteins.

 For CDKs to complete this function, they
must first interact with cyclins to form a

cyclin-CDK complex.
Cell cycle check points
1. G1 check point
2. G2 check point
3. M check point (spindle check point)
G1 check point
 This is the check point at which cells choose
whether to proceed with S phase and not to
divide and instead go into quiescence via the
G0 phase
 Checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factor,
DNA damage.
 This check point is mediated by the cyclin
E/CDK2 complex and two cell cycle regulator

proteins called retinoblastoma protein (RB)
and E2F
The G2 check point
 To make sure that cell division goes smoothly
the cell has an additional checkpoint before
M phase, called the G2 checkpoint.
 Checks for: DNA damage, DNA replication
completeness.
 If errors or damage of the DNA are detected,
the cell will pause at the G2 check point to

allow for repairs.
 If the damage is irreparable, the cell will
undergo apoptosis.
The spindle check point
 The M checkpoint is also known as the spindle
checkpoint.
 the cell examines whether all the sister
chromatids are correctly attached to the

spindle microtubules.
 the cycle will not proceed until all the
chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two

spindle fibers from opposite poles of the cell.
Diagram
Retiniblastoma protein (RB)
 The primary function of RB is to prevent
excessive cell division by inhibiting cell cycle
progression.
 When the appropriate signals for cell division
are present (i.e. cyclins) RB is inactivated by

phosphorylation.
 RB is normally bound to a transcription factor
called E2F. E2F is then able to bind the

promotors of proteins required for cell
division.
Tumor suppressor genes
 TSG code for proteins which function to
control cell division and ensure that it only
occurs when necessary.
 Mutations which lead to loss of function of
TSG increases the risk of cancer by increasing

the risk of uncontrolled cell division.
P53 (the guardian of the genome)
 The most important tumor suppressor gene
 P53 ensures that only cells free of DNA errors
can undergo cell division.

 If a cell contains DNA errors , P53 will either
arrest cell division until the DNA has been

repaired or it will trigger apoptosis of that
cell.
 Loss of P53 leads to accumulation of DNA
mutations and eventually cancer.

Cell Division

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Cell Division

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Cell division

division to the next.

and cytoplasmic contents are separated and

1. G1 (or Gap one) phase

2. S (synthesis phase) phase

next phase to replicate their DNA.

separate strands, and each strand acts as a

and synthesizes enzymes that control cell

fibroblasts divide about once a day and spend

and cartilage cells slowly, and skeletal muscle

a. Mitosis (karyokinesis): nuclear division

division: its importance

Results: 2 daughter cells Diagram

◦ Meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

controlled by mechanisms that are both internal

out by a family of proteins called cyclins and

 2. Extracellular control of the cell cycle

concentration and expression cycles

different types of CDKs.

domains on target proteins.

must first interact with cyclins to form a

E/CDK2 complex and two cell cycle regulator

the cell will pause at the G2 check point to

chromatids are correctly attached to the

chromosomes are firmly attached to at least two

are present (i.e. cyclins) RB is inactivated by

called E2F. E2F is then able to bind the

TSG increases the risk of cancer by increasing

can undergo cell division.

arrest cell division until the DNA has been

mutations and eventually cancer.

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