The Western and Eastern

Concepts of Self
“ One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking
seriously the cultures of others. It forces you to pay attention to
those details of life which differentiate them from you.

-Edward T. Hall
”
 The Western conceptualization of the self is divided into three
periods of historical development while the Eastern concepts of self are
presented based on the four great systems of Eastern thought:
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism.
WESTERN CONCEPT
OF SELF
 Geertz (van Meijl, 2008) defines Western concept of self as “a
bounded, unique, more or less integrated motivational and cognitive
universe, a dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action
organized into a distinctive whole and set contrastively both against other
such wholes and against its social and natural background…”
 This construction of an autonomous, unitary, and stable self in the
West is grounded in a contrasting assumption that non-western (such as
eastern) people do not possess and individuated self that is differentiated
from the “other”.

For that reason, the delusion of the separate self is likely to be

stringer in individuals raised in individualistic Western societies.
 It is in this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically
defined in terms of the following aspects:

1. Western Self as Analytic

The Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on
the casual links (part-to-whole relationships).The whole is understood
when differentiated into parts. One must categorize and make distinctions
to pursue cause.
 It is in this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically
defined in terms of the following aspects:

2. Western Self as Monotheistic

The belief in one Supreme Being coexisting with the universe
condenses the supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both
qualities of existence (e.g.; beautiful/ugly; kind/cruel; sacred/profane;
strong/weak; etc.) and categories of identity or experience (e.g.,
God/Satan; body/soul; love/lust; sinner/saint; etc.)
 It is in this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically
defined in terms of the following aspects:

3. Western Self as Individualistic

Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of favourable and
unfavourable conditions inherent in personal freedom. Although the
right to individual freedom provides opportunities for self-fulfilment, it
also increases the likelihood of experiencing alienation and frustration.
 It is in this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically
defined in terms of the following aspects:

4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic

The Western way of thinking is focused on material “things” and
favors a rational-empirical approach over magical and superstitious
explanations of immaterial “things”.
 David Ho (1995) describes the Western self as an individualistic self
that is deeply aware of itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose
and volition.
The self is located at the center within the individual through which
the world is perceived.
The self is also seen as “an entity distinct from other selves and all
other entities”.
 This implies that the self belongs to the individual and to no other.
As a consequence of this complete ownership of self, it becomes a
sovereign subject possessing a sense of personal control.
If all things are well, the self achieves coherence and stability over
time.
In an individualist perspective, the Western self is the measure of all
things (Ho, 1995; Garcia, 2013), that is, the source of all reflections.
 Frank Johnson (1985) traces the earliest historical roots of the
Western concept of the self to works on philosophy, almost half a million
years ago.
Experimental psychology came into prominence during the mid-
nineteenth century and put forth the concept of self within the social-
interactionist framework.
The growth of sociology, anthropology and psychology in the late
nineteenth century saw the emergence of various concepts of self, among
them the Western concept.
Stage Period Historical Development
There were philosophical and theological attempts to chatacterize the self though the concepts of
Pre-Christian soul and mind with emphasis on conscious experience of the individual , distinction between
1 times until physical and mental nature of man (mind-body dualism), and the casuality of human behaviour.
1850

The establishment of experimental psychology in mid-nineteenth century led to a change in

emphasis from abstract concepts of soul and mind to observable and measurable aspects of
2 1850 – 1940 human faculties.
The concept of self re-emerged within the social-interactionist framework in the early 1900s.

There is multidirectional and continuous development of concept of self:

a. Sociological and psychological theories of self encompass all levels of self, namely
inner self, and social self.
b. Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in philosophy and psychology, engaged in
holistic approach integrating the inner, interpersonal and social aspects of self.
3 1940 - present c. At present, there is convergence in some conceptualizations of the self among
psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers and linguists whose studies
focus on the actual, multivariate and situational contexts of the self employing new
frameworks and methodologies.
EASTERN CONCEPT
OF SELF
 In the East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. Thus, the
major Eastern religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and
Taoism are also the common representatives of Eastern thought.

These Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features and

approaches to various issues about selfhood. For this reason, the Eastern
thought is described as pluralistic (Garcia, 2013). Although these four
systems of Eastern thought differ in their approaches about the concept
of self, they share the same goal—to teach how to become a perfect
person (Villaba, 1995).
 Frank Johnson (1985) traces the earliest historical roots of the
Western concept of the self to works on philosophy, almost half a million
years ago.
Experimental psychology came into prominence during the mid-
nineteenth century and put forth the concept of self within the social-
interactionist framework.
The growth of sociology, anthropology and psychology in the late
nineteenth century saw the emergence of various concepts of self, among
them the Western concept.
THE SELF IN FOUR GREAT
SYSTEMS OF EASTERN
THOUGHT
 HINDUISM

The Hindu concept of self is expounded in Vedanta, a major school

of Indian thought based on Upanishads, the classical Indian philosophical
treatises.

It has been stated that Brahman is an absolute reality, and Atman

(soul or spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman.
 Vedanta characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to
realize the distinction between the true self (permanent and
unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes
continually).

The goal of the person is to have a knowledge of the true reality—

Brahman. Self-realization is being united to all-embracing Brahman. But
the realization of true selfhood will result in a complete dissolution of
individual identity (Ho, 1995).
 The law of Karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. All
actions are subject to karma.

Individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in one’s

life. People get exactly what they deserve.

If you do good things, you will be rewarded, if you do bad, you will
be punished. Therefore, the individual is the only one responsible for
the consequences of his or her actions (Garcia, 2008).
 Hindus believe the Atman, being an immortal soul, continues to be
reincarnated from lifetime until it is freed from the cycle of rebirth and
reaches a state of nirvana or non-birth (Garcia, 2008).

Karma does not end with a body’s death, so its influence may extend
through incarnation of the soul. Individuals cannot change the fact that
they are exactly what they are supposed to be in life. In the present
lifetime, they can change what they will become in future lives.
 BUDDHISM

Siddharta Gautama, known as the Buddha, is the founder of

Buddhism.

The root word of Buddhism is “budh” meaning “awake”. To be

awake may imply that opening the eyes would lead to understanding more
about the self and the world.

According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of

enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha. But the seed should
be nurtured (Mansukhani, 2013).
 The Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of Buddhism:

(1) Life is suffering;

(2) Suffering is caused by attachment to desires;
(3) Suffering can be eliminated; and
(4) Elimination of suffering

Is through the practice of the Eightfold Path (right view, right

aspiration, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness and right concentration).
 In Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the
five parts (matter, sensation, perception, mental constructs and
consciousness) that compose the individual, however each of the parts
distinctly is not man (Villaba, 1995).

Man has no self (or no-soul). There is nothing and all else is an
illusion. There is nothing permanent but change.

The ignorance of the permanence of everything may lead to an

illusion of selfhood. This primal ignorance is the cause of life’s misery,
births and rebirths.
 The perfect moral-intellectual knowledge becomes powerful in the
sense that it eliminates the cause of one’s misery and awakens one from
the illusion of selfhood.

The ideal is to experience Nirvana (literally meaning, “blowing out”,

as of a lamp), a state of transcendence devoid of self-reference. This state
of transcendence can be achieved through meditation (Ho, 1995).
 CONFUCIANISM

The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects (Conversations of

Confucius).

The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of

reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you would not want others to do
to you.”

Thus, the basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to act in

relation to others.
 The most important of relationships are the Five Cardinal
Relationships:

 Between ruler and minster

 Between father and son
 Between husband and wife
 Between brothers
 Between friends

Hence, the self is known as a relational self.

 Another important feature in Confucian thought is the individual’s
greatest mission of attaining self-realization wherein self-cultivation is
instrumental.

Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one’s role in

society and acting accordingly.

Moral character is perfected by continuously taking every

opportunity to improve oneself in thought and action.
 There will be harmonious relationships when individuals follow
the rules of proper social behaviour.

The individual is set to respond to what is socially required

rather than to one’s personal needs and goals .

Here, the self is a subdued self (Ho, 1995).

 TAOISM

Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. Taoists reject the Confucians idea

of a relational self.

To them, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social

relationships. The self is described as one of limitless forms of the Tao
(Ho, 1995).
 The Tao is commonly regarded as Nature that is the foundation of all
that exists (Garcia, 2008). It is not bounded by time and space.

The ideal is to identify with the Tao. The perfect man has no self.

Selflessness is attained when the distinction between “I” and “other”

dissolves.
 The selfless person leads to a balanced life, in harmony with both
nature and society (Ho, 1995).

Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with nature

should govern one’s life.

Individuals must seek to understand and act in accordance with the

natural order.

There should be unity and harmony among opposing elements: the Yin
and Yang (Abella, 2016). Hence, there is oneness of the Tao.
 DICHOTOMY OF
WESTERN AND EASTERN
CONCEPTIONS OF SELF
 In EASTERN thought, the emphasis is relational rather than
individualistic.

The self is considered not in isolation but in relation to others, society, and
the universe.

Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in consciousness, feelings,

emotions and one’s relation to other people and the world.

The theories of Eastern philosophers demonstrate a sociocentric view

presupposing that the self exists as an entity within the concrete situation or role
occupied by the person (Robbins, 2012).
 In contrast, WESTERN thoughts tend to view the self as autonomous,
unitary, and stable (van Meijl, 2008).

Nevertheless, Western thoughts about the self has been examined by

renowned theorists like Freud, Erikson, Bandura, Rogers, Jung, James, Mead,
Cooley and others.

They have conducted scientific investigations in an effort to understand the

self and have developed theories and concepts to account for the similarities and
differences among them.

They emphasize the importance of scientific methods to provide satisfactory

answers to understanding the self.
 Eastern theories offer a variety of techniques for cultivating a
deeper understanding of the self.

However, they do not utilize the scientific techniques of

investigation.
 It is vitally important that both East and West appreciate each
other’s attempts to understand the self. To do so can only enrich both
(Engler, 2012).

Thus, Quito (Garcia, 2013) seeks to place Western and Eastern

theories of the self into perspective by making some comparisons and
contrast among them.
 For instance, Asian thought looks at life in the three-mode cycle of birth,
death and rebirth.

On the other hand, Western concept of life is linear as it is concerned with

absolute beginnings or endings in time and space.

This implies that in Asia one’s thought, action and speech should be in
harmony.

Asian thought considers intuition as a valid means to gain wisdom, it DOES

NOT rely mainly on reason and logic which are the more popular sources of
knowledge in the West.
 Another distinction between Eastern and Western thought is
about nature and self.

According to Sarza (2013), one unique feature of EASTERN

PHILOSOPHY is its great reverence for nature. It is believed that
nature promotes introspection into one’s inner life and that wisdom
and enlightenment can be attained by observing nature.
 On the other hand, Peacock (1986) mentions that modern WESTERN
culture trends to set the individual against nature, that is, to struggle
against nature which is a dangerous enemy.

This viewpoint can be traced from Christian theologies that consider

nature as fallen and evil.

However, recently there are objections to this view of nature opposing

the human being. It has been argued that the individual and nature are
part of a single whole.
 Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought
There is a separation between philosophy and
Frame of Knowledge religion/spirituality.
Religion and Philosophy are intertwined.

Scholasticism Hinduism
Examples of Schools of Rationalism Buddhism
Thought/Belief Systems Empiricism Confucianism
Phenomenology Taoism

Greek Triumvirate: Socrates Confucius

Plato, Aristotle Lao Tzu
Notable Philosophers Rene Descartes Siddharta Gautama
John Locke (Buddha)

Has made use of reason rather than faith to pursue Has trusted intuition and is often associated with
Source of Knowledge wisdom. religious beliefs.

Modes of Cognition Analytic and deductive Synthetic and Inductive

Emphasis Distinctions and oppositions Commonalities and Harmonies

View of the Universe and Life Linear Circular

View of Self Egocentric Sociocentric

Subject-Object Distinction (Bipolar Duality of self-as-subject (knower) and self-as-object Simultaneously subject and object (The experience
Qualities of Self) (known) of self as both the knower and known)

Theological View Monotheistic Polytheistic (Pluralistic)

 Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought

To achieve a balanced life and find one’s role in

Ideal Self-actualization through personal growth
society.

Collectivism
a. The self is an integrated part of the universe
Individualism
and the society.
a. The self is a distinct and autonomous entity; it is
b. Interdependence and connectedness are core
an independent part of the universe and the
values.
society.
c. No distinctions between personal and group
b. Independence and self-reliance and core values.
Cultural Framework c. Prioritize personal goals over group goals
goals, or if there is a distinction, the
personal goals are subordinate to the group
d. Characterized by exchange relationship
goals.
e. Uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose and
d. Characterized by communal relationship.
volition are the acknowledged features of self.
e. Conformity and obedience are essential
f. Personal success is important.
social behaviors.
f. Duty towards all others is important.