Regulation
Regulation
Pancreas
Makes
Digestive Enzymes
And
Hormones
Hormones
• Secreted by Endocrine Glands
• Chemicals
• Travel via blood to target
• Regulate processes at target
How do Hormones act on target?
• One Messenger Model:
– Hormone crosses target cell membrane
– Binds cytoplasmic receptor protein
– Hormone-Receptor Complex interacts with
DNA
– Effect produced
– Ex. Steroids (Lipid-like)
Steroid Model
How do Hormones act on target?
• 2 Messenger Model:
– Hormone binds receptor on membrane
– Binding activates a second chemical in
cytoplasm (ex. cAMP, cGMP, Calcium)
– 2nd Chemical leads to cell response
– Protein Hormones
2 Messenger Model
nd
The Glands
1. Pituitary Gland
• In Head
• “Master Gland”
• Two Sections
(Anterior and
Posterior)
• Regulated by the
Hypothalamus (Part
of Brain)
Pituitary Gland
Releasing Factors
Stores &
Makes & Secretes
Secretes
Hormone Neuropeptides
of
Hypothalamus
Hormones of Anterior Pituitary
Hormone Target Response
TSH Thyroid Thyroxin Release
ACTH Adrenals Hormone Release
GH Many cells Bone Growth
FSH Ovary Follicle Growth
LH Ovary egg release
Prolactin Mammary Milk Production
Glands
Hormones of Posterior Pituitary
Neuropeptide Target Response
Oxytocin Uterus
Contractions
Vasopressin (ADH) Kidney More H20
Reabsorption
The Glands
2. Thyroid Gland
– In neck
Hormones of Thyroid
• Thyroxine (T3,T4)
– Has iodine
– Regulates protein, carb and fat metabolism
– Regulates cellular respiration
• Calcitonin
– Regulates blood calcium levels
– Lowers blood calcium levels
The Glands
3. Parathyroid Glands
– Four glands embedded in thyroid gland
Hormone of Parathyroid Gland
• Parathormone
– Regulates Calcium and Phosphate
metabolism
– Increases blood calcium levels by taking
Calcium out of bone
The Glands
4. The Adrenal Glands
– On surface of kidneys
– Has two layers (inner medulla and outer cortex)
Hormones of Adrenal Medulla
• Epinephrine (Adrenalin) and “Fight or
Flight Response”
– Nervous System regulation
– Increase: Heartbeat, blood pressure,
respiration, clotting rate, glucose levels
• Norepinephrine
– Released in response to low blood pressure,
causes for an increase.
Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
Corticosteroids:
• Cortisol (Glucocorticoid)
– Affects carb, protein and fat metabolism
• Aldosterone (Mineraolcorticoid)
– Affects Sodium and Potassium levels at
kidney level
The Glands
5. Pancreas
– Islets of Langerhan cells:
• Alpha cells= secrete the hormone Glucagon
• Beta cells=secrete the hormone Insulin
Hormones of Pancreas
• Glucagon
– raises blood glucose levels
• (Glycogen to glucose)
• Insulin
– Lowers blood glucose levels
• (Glucose to Glycogen)
The Glands
6. Gonads:
• Ovaries
– Located in female
abdominal cavity
• Testes
– Located in male
scrotum
Hormones of Ovaries
• Estrogen
– Stimulates female reproductive system
– Female secondary sexual characteristics
– Regulates menstrual cycle
• Progesterone
– Regulates menstrual cycle
Hormones of Testes
• Testosterone (an Androgen)
– Stimulates male reproductive system
development
– Male secondary sexual characteristics
The Glands
7. Thymus
• In upper chest
• More important in
early years than
adulthood
Hormones of Thymus
• Thymosin
– Stimulate T cell development
The Glands
8. Pineal Gland
– At base of brain
Hormone of the Pineal Gland
• Melatonin
– Involved in daily rhythms and biological clock
– Much still unknown
Digestive System Hormones
• Gastrin from Stomach
• Secretin, CCK, GIP from Small Intestine
“Local Hormones”
• Prostaglandins
– Don’t travel far from production site (unlike
other hormones)
– Wide range of functions
Problems
• Diabetes:
– Excess glucose in blood
– Low Insulin (Hyposecretion) or too much
glucagon (Hypersecretion)
– Type 1= don’t make insulin (autoimmune against beta
cells)
– Type 2= Diet related sugar management problem,
liver doesn’t respond to insulin)
– Gestational= Pregnancy related
• Hypoglycemia
– Too low blood glucose
– Too high insulin or too low glucagon
Problems
• Giantism
– In kids
– Normal proportions
– Too much GH
• Acromegaly
– In adults
– Too much GH
– Large body parts
• Dwarfism
– In kids
– Small but proportional body
– Low GH
Problems
• Hyperthyroidism
– Too much thyroxine
– Hyper, eye bulging , may include Goiter
condition
Problems
• Cushing’s Disease
– Hypersecretion of
Aldosterone and
Cortisol
– Fat deposits
– High blood glucose
• Addison’s
Problems
Disease
– Low amount of
aldosterone
and cortisol
– Glucose
metabolism
problems
– Sluggish,
weak, weight
loss
– Increased skin
pigmentation
Problems
• Hypothyroidism
– In infant: becomes
dwarf with
disproportionate body
and mental retardation
(cretinism)
– In adult: sluggish,
heavy person
How are hormone levels normally
regulated?
Homeostatic Feedback Regulation
1) Baby Suckling nerves signal Hypothalamus to
release Oxytocin Breast Milk
2) Temp. drop nerves signal Hypothalamus to
release TSH-releasing factor TSH release
from Pituitary Thyroid Gland release Thyroxin
3) Hot nerves signal Hypothalamus to release
ADH kidney releases less urine
Negative Homeostatic
Feedback
• Too much Thyroid
hormones in blood
• Shut down anterior
pituitary and
hypothalamus
related to Thyroid
hormones
Nervous Regulation
• Like E-mail
• Fast but short-lived response
Basic Unit of Nervous Regulation
At Rest (Polarized)
Need to reach “Threshold” to open
enough Na gates to start impulse
(All or none Response)
Na Gates Open-Positive Na rushes in,
Positive K stays in (Depolarization),
More positive entering than leaving
• Cerebrum
– Largest part
– Divided down the middle
into the right and left
cerebral hemispheres
• Rt Art/Music
• Lt Math/Analytical
– The nerves that cross the
hemispheres are the
“corpus callosum”
Brain
• Cerebrum
– Outer Gray Matter ( Cerebral Cortex)
• motor neuron cytons and
interneurons
• Many unmyelinated cells
• Processing area of brain
• Sensory, motor and associative
functions
– Speech, thought, hearing,
vision, voluntary body
movements, memory, smell
• Many folds=increase surface area
– Inner White Matter region
• Mostly region of myelinated
axons
• Communication of data
between sides of cortex
• Communication from cortex
region and rest of body
• Crossed “wires”:Lt side of
brain controls Rt side of
body and vise versa
Compartmentalization
Memory
Stored in Hippocampus Region
Tiered circuits of impulses
• Momentary
– Lasts minutes
• Short-term
– Lasts several hours
• Long-term
– Lasts years
– Stored in Cortex
Why do casinos stay open all night
and have no clocks?
Naps boost memory
(J. Sleep Research)
• As much as a 6 min.
nap improves recall
– Brain extracts the gist
of learned info
– Brain files info and
combines info with
previously learned info
– Brain adds meaning to
info learned
Brain
• Cerebellum
– Outside has gray matter
– Inside has white matter
– Coordinates movements
Brain
• Medulla Oblongata
– Lowest brain part
– Outside is white matter
– Inside is gray
– Controls involuntary activities
Brain
• Thalamus
– Relay center
– pain
• Hypothalamus
– Controls body temperature, blood pressure,
sleep, emotions
– Regulates pituitary gland
• Pons
– Relay center
Brain Waves
EEG
Behaviors
• Reflex
– No thought
– Response is inborn
– Unlearned
– Protection or survival-related
Behaviors
• Instinct
– Inborn
– Unlearned
– Sequence of reflexes with each one triggering
the next reflex
Behaviors
• Conditioned Reflex
– Learned behavior together with a reflex
Behaviors
• Conditioned Response
– Associate one stimulus with another
Child will
associate fear
with mice
Behaviors
• Habit
– Behavior requiring no thought
– Performed quickly
– Not inborn
– Desire, Repetition and Satisfaction
Behaviors
• Imprinting
– Behavior patterns developed soon after birth
– learned from what ever it thinks to be its
parent
Spinal Cord
• Extends from medulla down through the
vertebral column
Spinal Cord
• Protected by vertebral
column
Spinal Cord
• Covered by the menenges and CSF
• Outer White Matter
• Inner Gray Matter
• Connects Peripheral Nerve with Brain
• Controls Reflexes
Simple Reflex Arc
Peripheral Nervous System
• Nerves not of brain and spinal cord
– 31 pairs of spinal nerves
– 12 pairs of cranial nerves serving eyes,
ears, nose, mouth…
Two Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous System
2. Autonomic Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
• Sensory and Motor Neurons dealing with
activities that are voluntary (ex. Pick up a
book)
Autonomic Nervous System
• Nerves that facilitate events that are not
under voluntary control (ex. Gland
contraction)
Two Divisions of Autonomic System
1. Parasympathetic Nervous System
2. Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic System
Causes impulses for:
– Slow heartbeat
– Increase peristalsis of digestion
– Dilate blood vessels
– Constrict urinary bladder
– Constrict bronchi
– Pupil constricted
Sympathetic Nervous System
Causes impulses for:
– Speed up heart rate
– Slow digestion peristalsis
– Constricts blood vessels
– Relax bladder
– Widen bronchi
– Dilate pupils
Problems
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Schizophrenia
• Dyslexia
• Autism
• ADHD
• Paralysis
• Bipolar Syndrome
• Alzheimer's Disease
• Cerebral Palsy
• Parkinson's Disease
• Headaches
• Muscular Dystrophy
• Encephalitis, Meningitis
• Stroke / "Brain Attack"
• Epilepsy and Seizures
• Brain Tumors
• Polio
• Addiction/Anxiety/Depression
• Pinched nerves
Headaches
Receptor Organs
• Eye
• Ear
• Tongue
• Nose
• Skin
Eye
Eye
Sclera
• Outer layer
• White of eye
• Provide shape and
protection
Cornea
• Front of sclera
• Bulges outward
• Thin
• Transparent
• Light enters
• Provides focus
Choroid Coat
• Beneath Sclera layer
• Blood Vessels
• Stops reflection inside
eye
Iris
• Front of Choroid coat
• Colored
• Controls amount of
light entering eye like
camera shutter
• Muscle controlled
• Autonomic control
Pupil
• Hole at center of iris
• Light enters
Lens
• Behind iris
• Focuses light on retina
• Muscles change shape of lens
Retina
• Inner layer
• Image screening
• Light receptors
• No receptors where
optic nerve exits
eye=“blind spot”
Retina
• Vision:
– Rod cells=black and white, low light vision
– Cone cells (Red, Green, Blue)=color vision
– Cells have Retinal Pigment (Need Vit. A)
– Send info out through optic nerve
Cavities of Eye
• Fluid-filled
– Aqueous Humor
• Between cornea and
lens
– Vitreous humor
• Jelly
• Provides shape
• Behind lens
Ear
• Outer Ear
– Pinna
• Funnel sound
– Auditory Canal
• wax
Ear
• Middle Ear
– Tympanic membrane
– Hammer
– Anvil
– Stirrup
– Oval Window
Membrane
– Eustachian Tube
Ear
• Inner Ear
– Cochlea
• hearing
– Semicircular canals
• Balance
– Auditory Nerve
Skin
• Touch receptors
• Pressure Receptors
• Pain Receptors
• Temperature Receptors
Tongue
• Taste Receptor
– “Taste bud”
– Substance needs to
be in solution to taste
– Much of flavor comes
from smell
Tongue
• Tastes and receptor Old Model!
Glaucoma Vision
Problems
• Cataracts
– Lens turns cloudy
Cataract Vision
Problem
• Colorblindness
– Problem with cones
Stare at center dot for 20sec